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		<title>Considerations on climate change litigations in Italy</title>
		<link>https://www.giustamm.it/dottrinan/considerations-on-climate-change-litigations-in-italy/</link>
		
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					<description><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrinan/considerations-on-climate-change-litigations-in-italy/">Considerations on climate change litigations in Italy</a></p>
<p>Chiara Colognese ABSTRACT: il contributo si propone di analizzare il fenomeno del contenzioso climatico in Italia. A partire dalla sempre crescente rilevanza che il cambiamento climatico sta assumendo nella giurisprudenza italiana e dall’analisi dei cosiddetti “small cases”, l’intento è quello di concentrarsi sull’unico caso di contenzioso climatico che è oggi</p>
<p>L'articolo <a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrinan/considerations-on-climate-change-litigations-in-italy/">Considerations on climate change litigations in Italy</a> proviene da <a href="https://www.giustamm.it">Giustamm</a>.</p>
]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrinan/considerations-on-climate-change-litigations-in-italy/">Considerations on climate change litigations in Italy</a></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Chiara Colognese</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT: il contributo si propone di analizzare il fenomeno del contenzioso climatico in Italia. A partire dalla sempre crescente rilevanza che il cambiamento climatico sta assumendo nella giurisprudenza italiana e dall’analisi dei cosiddetti “small cases”, l’intento è quello di concentrarsi sull’unico caso di contenzioso climatico che è oggi possibile definire come “strategico”. Ci si soffermerà quindi nell’approfondire il procedimento chiamato dai suoi promotori “Giudizio Universale”, insieme con i suoi profili critici.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">ABSTRACT: the contribution aims to analyze the phenomenon of climate litigation in Italy. Starting from the ever-increasing relevance that climate change is assuming in Italian jurisprudence and from the analysis of the so-called &#8220;small cases,&#8221; the intention is to focus on the only case of climate litigation that it is now possible to define as &#8220;strategic.&#8221; We will then pause in delving into the proceedings called &#8220;The Last Judgment&#8221; by its promoters, along with its critical profiles.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<ol style="text-align: justify;">
<li><strong><em>Preliminary remarks</em></strong></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Climate change litigation is emerging as an area of legal research on which Italian and foreign scholars as well as the public debate are progressively and increasingly focusing. Such a trend is primarily caused by the significant growth of climate cases as shown by the permanent monitoring carried out by different research centers<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Considering the topic complexity, it is better to conduct a preliminary analysis of the main notions regarding this subject. Moreover given that the concepts involved are strictly connected, the risk of a misleading overlapping is high.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">One might include inter alia the notion of climate justice. The concept has begun to spread at the beginning of the XXI century<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a> and its firstly official recognition happened within the Climate Justice Summit (COP6 in AIA), with a later formalization through the Bali Principles of Climate Justice. Given the eterogenity of its possible interpretations, scholars pointed out that a clear definition of justice is rather difficult. However, a comprehensive notion that it might be possible to refer to is the definition formulated by the European Economic and Social Committee. It has highlighted that climate change is not solely an environmental matter since such a phenomenon implicates different political as well as ethic issues within a global context of spatial and temporal interdependency. In the context of such a vision, it is recognized that “the most vulnerable and poorest in society often have to suffer the greatest impact of the effects of climate change”<a href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3">[3]</a>. From the basis of this concept as so interpreted derive a protection claim to conform the solutions to contrast climate change to the principle of responsibility and the equity criterion. With regard to the first one, the reference is both to the principle of historical responsibilities as for countries&#8217; historical contribution to climate change and to the principle of common but differentiated responsabilities<a href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4">[4]</a>. The equity instead consists of the criterion to confront with in order to ensure an equal protection referring to the spatial as well as temporal dimension.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Climate justice is therefore a wide concept that has to be distinct from the notion of climate change litigation; however among the scholars’ contributions there is not a univocal interpretation. Among the others, an extensive definition that could be agreeable with identifies the climate change litigation as the ‹‹lawsuits brought before administrative, judicial and other investigatory institutions, in domestic and international courts and organizations, that raise issues of law or fact regarding the science of climate change and climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts›› <a href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5">[5]</a>Given the width of such an interpretation, climate change litigation does not include only the suits against governments but also against private entities as well as public authorities that have authorized projects that negatively impacts on the climate. On these premises, is therefore possible to deduce that climate litigations cannot be univocally identified as the operative-procedural legal tool for the protection of the ethical and moral instances connected to the concept of climate justice<a href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6">[6]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Within this context, a particular type of climate litigations are the strategic cases, which are characterized by a claimants’ goal mainly consisting in promoting pro-climate policies, increasing public awareness or changing governments or industries strategies <a href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7">[7]</a>. As it will be better specified, the ‘Last Judgment’, i.e. the lawsuit promoted by more than 200 plaintiffs in order to sue the Italian Government for climate inaction, might be identified as a climate litigation with such features.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In the framework of these definitions, this article aims to examine the state of the art of climate change litigation in Italy, focusing on the main obstacles for the implementation of this tool within the Italian legal system.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>1.2. Increasing relevance of climate change in the Italian case law</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Over the last few years, climate change related issues are slowly beginning to get proper recognition in the Italian jurisprudence. Even thou to this day there is not a case law <em>specifically</em> dealing with climate change, Italian Courts are acknowledging more and more frequently the consequences of climate change; this happens <em>indirectly</em> in most cases, within legal actions concerning pollution, energy resources, health and migrations. These are “small cases”, which belong, undoubtedly, to climate change litigation, but we could ask ourselves if they can be considered also as “strategic” climate change litigation.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Before considering some of the most significant “ordinary” cases and answering the above mentioned question, it seems necessary to briefly illustrate how jurisdiction works in Italy. Jurisdiction is divided into ordinary, administrative and special.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The allocation of jurisdictional competence between the administrative and the ordinary courts is based on the protected subjective legal situation.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Essentially, competence on subjective rights belongs to the ordinary jurisdiction, except in cases expressly provided for by law (the so-called “exclusive jurisdiction”) where the administrative courts are deemed competent in the hypothesis of legitimate interests. Within this context, the legitimate interest could be defined as that particular Italian subjective legal situation of the parties that are compared with the exercise of public power.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Given the legal framework, we can now look at several cases in which the Courts have taken heed of climate change issues.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">First of all, the Italian Constitutional Court acknowledges that in the Italian legal system could be found a “<em>favor</em>” towards renewable energy sources in order to “eliminate the Italian reliance on fossil fuel” and “enhance the use of green energy”. These valuable statements were reaffirmed in several sentences regarding energy resources such as sent. n. 124/2010, sent. n. 286/2019 and sent. n. 237/2020. In all these cases the Constitutional Court deals with the declaration of unconstitutionality of some national or regional laws which put each time different limits to renewable energies.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Focusing to the administrative case law, the Plenary of the Council of State (the Supreme Administrative Court) in 2019 stated that there is “a preeminent interest of the community to the gradual decrease of the carbon – dioxide in the atmosphere” in order to meet the international obligations to which Italian State has committed<a href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8">[8]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Furthermore in 2020 the administrative Tribunal of Salerno remarked the need to consider the climate impact of an airport planning with regard to quantity and quality of the climate – changing emissions (sent. n. 259/2020). It is specifically requested to take into account the “project’s vulnerability to climate change”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Antoher relevant sentence related to a “strategic climate change litigation” is the Sent. n. 1088/2017: in this case, some environmental associations complained about Lombardy&#8217;s inactivity in updating the Regional Plan for the Air Quality. It’s important to us underlining that the claimants decided to take action against a public body with an action to condemn to a public “<em>facere</em>”<a href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9">[9]</a> before the administrative courts. It means that the claimants did not bring forth a “right to a clean air” but the legitimate interest to have a regional environmental plan for the air quality, believing this was the most effective approach.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, as far as the ordinary jurisprudence is concerned, we can spot several verdicts in which climate change is mainly considered as a matter of fact by ordinary jurisprudence and is applied to typical civil law controversies. For example, in the ordinance n. 18856/17 of the Supreme Court of Cassation, the Court recognised that a cloudburst can no longer be considered as a fortuitous event. Therefore, it will no longer be possible to identify such an event as an unforeseeable circumstance, in order to exclude any liability.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Another example can be given by the case law regarding climate migrants. In fact, since 2021 the Supreme Court of Cassation has begun to grant international protection to migrants in danger not only for armed conflict but also for environmental and climatic reasons (ord. n. 5022/2021) <a href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10">[10]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Given this overview, could all these “small cases” be deemed “strategic climate change controversies”?</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Before answering this question, it is crucial to investigate the meaning of the expression “strategic litigation”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Theoretically speaking, every litigation could be considered strategic, as “it requires a plan of action in order to reach the claimant’s goal”<a href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11">[11]</a>. However, if we want to confer a distinctive meaning to the word “strategic”, we could say that “a strategic litigation is the one which has been promoted to make developing the legal system even beyond the current legislation”<a href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12">[12]</a>. It aims for a benefit that surpasses the parties’ ones. Therefore, one could say that is actually one form of activism.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This course is more common in countries based on a common law system because jurisprudence is a source of law, so that a victorious case is a powerful instrument to determine the evolution of the law system; that is why Anglo-Saxon countries are pioneers in climate litigation (often strategic).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">On the contrary, in continental European countries, a judge ruling can have at most a nomophylactic value (only for the Plenary Session of the Council of State and the Plenary Session of the Supreme Court), without setting up a binding precedent.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to being a weaker instrument for the activists, there is also the legal standing issue: this will be analyzed in detail further on, but it is useful to anticipate that even in the strategic litigations the claimants must have a direct and differentiated interest. There could not be “hypothetical controversies”, but it is always necessary to produce a right or legitimate interest’s damage.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Moreover, there is the risk to make an instrumental use of the litigation before Courts: one should start legal proceedings to ask for a proper right’s protection or to seek justice; conversely in the strategic litigation the claimant’s pose the judges a question that could be defined as “political”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">We have clarified what we mean as “strategic”. Now we can return to our initial question, that is if even the “small climate change cases” could be considered as strategic ones.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The main goal of all the reported case law is the ascertainment of an already existing climate changing scenario, without the forward-looking ambition to change it or the purpose of obtaining utilities beyond the involved parties. So, in the writer’s opinion, these can be hardly considered strategic. Nevertheless, we might argue that the Tar of Lombardy case (sentence n. 1088/2017) could be evaluated as strategic because it was aimed to get a result (clean air) for the entire community, by the introduction of a regulatory modification.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Besides these “small cases”, the first expressly strategic climate change litigation in Italy is the one called “The Last Judgment”. In this case, in fact, the claimants aim for a benefit that surpasses the parties’ ones and consider the cause as an actual form of activism: they collected signatures, launched an awareness-raising campaign and raised donations to support the cause<a href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13">[13]</a>. We will focus on “The Last Judgment” in the next sections.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Lastly, to get the full picture of the landscape we are going to move in, it is useful to mention that a constitutional reform has been recently approved in Italy, amending article 9 and article 41 of the Constitution<a href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14">[14]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">With the approval of this reform, the Italian Constitution now provides that the Republic protects the environment, biodiversity and the ecosystems, also in the interest of future generations (art. 9). Moreover, the Italian Constitution now envisages that laws determine the programs and the appropriate controls in order to direct economic (public and private) activities towards social and <em>environmental</em> purposes (art. 41)</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">It&#8217;s the first time that the Italian legislator decides to reform one of the “Fundamental Principles” (that is the first 12 articles of the Italian Constitution, which defines the essential features of the Italian State). That indicates a new sensitivity maturing within the legal system: even if in some academics’ opinion the constitutional reform incorporates environmental principles already established by the jurisprudence, the reform and in particular the new reference to “future generations” could be a factor that will largely impact the pathway of Italian climate change litigations.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">As anticipated, in the next paragraph the plaintiff&#8217;s claims resulting from the writ of summons of The Last Judgment will be examined. The analysis will be expecially focused to the compatibility between the plaintiff&#8217;s claim and the structure of the legal system as well as to the legal subjective positions involved.</p>
<ol style="text-align: justify;" start="2">
<li><strong>“The Last Judgment”: an analysis of its critical issues</strong></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In June 2021, under the campaign ‘The Last Judgment’, more than 200 plaintiffs challenged the Italian Government before the Civil Court of Rome with the aim of suing the State for climate inaction.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This writ of summons’ main objective was to prove the Italian Government has implemented insignificant a insufficient efforts in preventing and taking action against climate changes’ causes and direct effects. So, firstly, the plaintiffs’ analisys shows how the current climate condition is an emergency that constitutes an urgent threat. The related phisical phenomena are described in a scientifical and factual way, backed by reports and data, and the climate emergency is characterized by four features: scientific proof on its existence and severity, assessing its influence on human beings ; global scale of the phenomenon; transcending of all planetary boundaries; unprecedented nature and scale compared to other emergencies due to the risks of the &#8216;Global Tipping Point&#8217; <a href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15">[15]</a></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Moreover Italy is identified as a climate hotspot, since a variation of climatic parameters and other environmental features exacerbates the impacts on the territory determining a condition of high vulnerability<a href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16">[16]</a>. Within this context, national climate policies are deemed inadequate to assess the emergency, with insufficient emission reduction objectives (planned in the National Climate and Energy Plan) as well.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This initial part of the writ of summons ends underlining the awareness of public authorities towards such a widely proofed phenomenon, by referring to European and Italian institutions’ statements.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">On the grounds of this factual background, in the second part of the writ of summons the plaintiffs claim the existence of &#8216;climate obligations&#8217; that the State would have breached, which consist of obligations that arise from international agreements as well as EU acts. Furthermore, a human right to a stable and safe climate based on the fundamental human rights is laid claim, by challenging the italian authorities of violating such a right due to an insufficient effort on contrasting climate change. Based on these factual and legal arguments, the applicants demand the Court to ascertain the Italian State&#8217;s liability under art. 2043 and art. 2051 of the Italian Civil Code and to order the adoption of any measure to reduce the 92% of GHG emissions compared to 1990 levels by 2030.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">For a deep comprehension of the importance of ‘The Last Judgment’ and its critical issues, it is crucial to address the so-called climate obligations and the subjective legal position of the claimed human right to a stable and safe climate.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>2.1.  Climate obligations</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The applicants introduced “Climate obligations” referring to a series of duties for the Italian State to abide to, which legally arise from the UNFCCC, the Paris Agreement, the article 2 and the art. 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, the EU regulation n. 2018/842, 2018/1999, 2020/852, 2021/241, and the Italian Constitution.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Among these “Climate Obligations”, two can directly assessed from the aforementioned regulations. The primary duty consists in the adoption of proper measures aimed to mitigate climate change, by limiting GHG (green house gassings) emission as well as protecting and increasing the national GHG sinks and reservoirs. The other obbligation to abide to is to specify the methodology that should guide the implementation of the measures included within the primary duty, which will be define by taking in account four different aspects of climate change. The first one is identified with equity, which should inspire the determination of climate policies and its underlying carbon budget concept. The second criterion consists of the climate precautionary principle, which implies a prioritization of mitigation measures over other measures, a non-deferrability of the latter, even with scientific uncertainty, an early analysis, prevention and reduction of climate change causes and an evaluation of the efficacy of mitigation measures. Whereas, the last two criteria are identified with the adoption of a science-informed approach in the decision making processes and the transparency on climate change related information.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Within this legal context, the critical issues that it might be reasonable to highlight are not related to the application of such legal sources within the national legal system; rather, the specific interpretation given by the complainants of such duties seems problematic.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In accordance with the plaintiffs assumption, the State has breached the obligation. More specifically, the State has violated such duties by not adopting adequate measures to contain the increase of global temperature to 1,5°C above pre-industrial levels by 2030.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Both the temporal limit and the temperature limit are identified by the plaintiffs as limits of tolerability and safety by referring mainly to the scientific recommendation defined within the 2018 IPCC Special Report. In the writ of summons it has been specified that these tresholds are normative constraints based on the mentioned legal sources. However, both the the temporal limit set within the EU regulations and the Paris agreement’s reference to the 1,5 ° C temperature objective were strictly related to the accomplishment of multiple correlated objectives.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, the plaintiff’s claim is not to convict the State for the violation of a target of C02 reduction predetermined by international agreements or UE and national legislation, among the aforementioned legal sources of the obligation. Instead, the Civil Tribunal of Rome has been appealed to convict the State to a target that would be compatible with the 1,5 °C temperature, which is also significantly more ambitious than the EU targets. In accordance with claimants’ statements, a different target would not be adequate to remove the urgent and potentially irreversible climate conditions that threaten the integrity of fundamental rights.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>2.2. The science-law connection</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">On the basis of such considerations, the first issue to focus on concerns the relationship between science and law here involved.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">An inductive approach needs a brief on the the IPCC reports that are quoted by the plaintiffs as a base to their claims on the climate obligations, stating that ‹‹<em>are neutral, politically-relevant but not polically-binding </em>››. Moreover, on the basis of a comparative perspective, with specific regard with the IPCC 2018 Special Report, it has been pointed out by the German Federal Constitutional Court that such a report just provides a comparison between the climate-related risks for natural and human systems in 1,5° C warming scenario with a 2°C one. Consequently, the report never asserts that warming must be limited to this level or proves the absolute necessity of such a limitation.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In order to highlight the influence of scientific recommendation on political discretion, the Italian Constitutional Court&#8217;s case law is cited within the writ of summons. More in detail, the plaintiffs refer to the Constitutional Court sentence No. 282/2002, in which the necessity of a functional connection and mutual influence between scientific knowledge and political discretion is recognized, although the case was related to the determination of medical treatments. Following the Constitutional Court&#8217;s reasoning, given the essential relevance of technical-scientific bodies with regard to specific types of subjects, the legislator should base its decision making process on the verification of the state of scientific literature as well as experimental evidences acquired through deputed institutions. However, coherently with the scholar&#8217;s contribution regarding such an issue, the reciprocal influence among science and political discretion does not implicate the dissolution of the boundaries associated with each fields’ autonomous thinking<a href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17">[17]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In the context of this lawsuit, as seen, the plaintiffs claim the Court to ascertain the violation of an obligation whose specific content is not determined by binding normative prescriptions rather by referring to the scientific indications developed by Climate Analytics<a href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18">[18]</a> as well as the recommendation specified within IPCC reports. Therefore, by following this approach, one might wonder whether the scientific findings have overcome the limits associated with their function of constituting a limit on political discretion by replacing it, through a recognition of a normative prescriptiveness to them, even beyond the prescriptions dletermined within the EU regulations.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">On the basis of such considerations, an additional critical issue has to be underlined the perplexities that arise from it. Climate change mitigation and adaptation measures are defined within a public policy building process in which other variables are embedded, such as the economic and social impacts of the measures. Thus, the basis of this building is a balancing process, so that the protection of one interest does not automatically lead to the undermining of other interests protected by law within the constitutional legal system.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Within this lawsuit, the plaintiff&#8217;s approach seems to unidirectionally claim to avoid the identification of a synthesis between the different interests related to the three-dimensionality of sustainability<a href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19">[19]</a>. Moreover, by asking the court to order the government to redefine the public policies related to the mitigation measures by 2030, the balancing process would be removed from the legitimate domain of political discretion.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>2.3 Human right to a (stable and safe) climate</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The second aspect we need to focus on concerns the claim of a human right to a stable and safe climate. The plaintiff’s reasoning moves from a preliminary acknowledgment of an indissoluble link between the impacts of climate change and the fundamental rights of human person<a href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20">[20]</a>, such as the right to life, to food and water, to health, to a healthy environment, etc.<a href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21">[21]</a> Based on such an assumption, the appellants claim the existence of a human right to a stable and safe climate which consists of the right of each human person to demand the non regression of his human development and his essential core of his rights in the context of the dramatic urgency of the climate emergency. In other words, such a legal subjective position implies the right that the State would remove the climate emergency situation in order to safeguard the functionality of the climatic system over time as well as to preserve its thermodynamic stability.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, this lawsuit could be included within the category of <em>‘human right based approach’</em> climate litigations<a href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22">[22]</a>, which have not been exempt from scholars&#8217; criticisms, despite their spread.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Some scholars doubt the admissibility itself of a “right to climate”, some others underline the risks related to the individualization of a common issue that such a paradigm implies<a href="#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23">[23]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;">Regarding this aspect, it must be noted that climate is a good with analogous features to the environmental ones, such as the indivisibility, immateriality, non-patrimoniality and it is not a good that could be under individual possession. Given such characteristics, the acknowledgment of an individual subjective position as well as the identification of the proper subjective juridical situation, either subjective right or legitimate interest, is problematic<a href="#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24">[24]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;">While the first aspect will be discussed later on, considering the strict link that it has with the locus standi, regarding the second aspect, one might agree on acknowledging that, analogously to the environment, the climate interest has a prismatic connotation so as a bundle of differently structured and differently protectable subjective legal situations are related to it.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;">On the basis of these observations, one might remind that the object of the litigation is the climatic inaction of the State as a result of the public policies that are defined and implemented through planning acts as a consequence of the exercise of the public power. For instance, the pathway for the achievement of european objectives regarding the reduction of CO2 emissions is defined through the National Climate and Energy Plan, as a &#8220;compaund&#8221; administrative decisions resulting from a procedure that involves also the European Commission.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, in light of these aspects, it should be reasonable to assert that a litigation before the administrative court as a judge that controls the adequacy of the exercise of public power would be more appropriate, given the subjective juridical situations here involved.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<ol style="text-align: justify;" start="3">
<li><strong>Legal standing</strong></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify;">From a strictly procedural point of view, admissibility could constitute an obstacle to climate litigation in Italy, especially for “The Last Judgment”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The legal standing issue has often been raised in climate change litigations. Anyway, in domestic climate litigation the case’s outcome depends to a significant extent on the procedural aspects of the specific internal legal order<a href="#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25">[25]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In fact, several climate lawsuits have been declared inadmissible because of the applicants’ lack of standing. In particular, five human rights-based complaints have been rejected on admissibility grounds by European domestic courts so far: Union of Swiss Senior Women for Climate Protection v Swiss Federal Council and Others; Plan B Earth and Others v UK Secretary of State for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy; Family Farmers and Greenpeace Germany v Germany; Greenpeace et al v Austria; PUSH Sweden, Nature and Youth Sweden and Others v Government of Sweden. Notably, in Switzerland the “Union of Swiss Senior Women for Climate Protection” association argued that the claimants belong to a vulnerable group since older women suffer a bigger impact on their health from excendengly hot seasons due to climate change. However, this observation was considered not sufficient to found their legal standing.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In other climate lawsuits, on the contrary, the legal standing issue has been overcome without many hurdles. The main example is the Urgenda case<a href="#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26">[26]</a>, where “Dutch legal order grants ample space to litigation that pursues public interests, and it is very open to international law”<a href="#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27">[27]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The Dutch civil code indeed gives extensive space to collective action claims. In the specific case of Urgenda, the Dutch Supreme Court acknowledged the applicants’ locus standi thanks to article 305a of the Third book of the Dutch Civil Code, regarding “Collective actions”. This article grants “a foundation or association with full legal capacity that, according to its articles of association, has the aim to protect specific interests” the possibility to bring to court a legal claim that intends to protect similar interests of other people”. That means that there is a special legal standing, expressly admitted by law, for every juridical person who has been founded in order to protect a certain interest. In addition to this, according to the Court of Cassation of the Netherlands, the access to justice should be guaranteed also because of art. 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights and art. 9 of Aarhus Convention, which permits the legal standing in environmental matters also for individuals gathered in interest groups.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In other circumstances, the locus standing issue has been equally overcome because the legal system allows the direct petition of the Constitutional Court. This situation, for instance, occurred in Germany where the violation of constitutional rights can be asserted with a direct appeal to the Federal Constitutional Court (Verfassungsbeschwerde): in this way it is possible to take legal action in order to protect interests which are not specifically connected to individuals<a href="#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28">[28]</a>. The main example in environmental field<a href="#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29">[29]</a> can be found in the Neubauer and other v. Germany case<a href="#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30">[30]</a> in which the Federal Constitutional Court decided to strike down parts of the Germany&#8217;s Federal Climate Protection Act (“Bundesklimaschutzgesetz” or “KSG”), as incompatible with fundamental rights. The predicted reduction of greenhouse gas by 55% until 2030 from 1990 levels was considered inadequate, in particular in complyance with the intergenerational duties<a href="#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31">[31]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, in common law legal systems, the legal standing difficulty was solved taking advantage of the “public interest litigation”<a href="#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32">[32]</a>. The peculiarity is that the claimants take action in order to protect public interest so that the decision would have effect on the entire community. Judges can also give indications to the Legislative powers, going beyond their traditional role of evaluating with organizing and shaping the future measures that will be needed<a href="#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33">[33]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The legal framework in Italy is very different. There is no legal instrument such as direct petition to Constitutional Court<a href="#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34">[34]</a> or public interest litigation.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">That’s why legal standing can be a serious obstacle to climate litigation in Italy, or at least in the “Last Judgment” because of the way it has been set up.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, we have to highlight the ordinary rules of locus standi in the Italian legal system.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Locus standi can be defined as a procedural situation that is at the same time separated and strictly related to the substantial situation that the plaintiffs claim before the Courts.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In order to access the Courts, the Italian legal system requires that the plaintiff asserts to be the holder of an individual subjective position. This position has to be “qualified and differentiated”. That means that the claimant needs to be in a distinguished position, different from all the others.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">If we consider the climate as an indivisible and non-patrimonial good, it would be hard to argue that anyone, from citizens to associations, have a “qualified and differentiated” position compared to others. Actually, the same features of climate that lead to question the admissibility of a proper subjective juridical situation could be problematic also for the legal standing.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Usually, when there is the need to invoke rights connected to common goods, the Italian legal system provides for special legal standing. This particular kind of legal standing comes in play every time the juridical system needs to achieve the protection of a public interest.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This is what happens, for instance, to the Antitrust Authority, that is allowed to take legal action every time there is a violation of competition law<a href="#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35">[35]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The same thing happens also with regard to environmental subjects. The Italian system, in fact, provides a special legal standing for the protection of the environment: ecological associations that are mentioned in a specific list by the Ministry of Ecological Transition can start proceedings before administrative courts in order to protect our environment whenever legitimate interests are involved.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In this scenario, if we consider climate as included in the notion of environment, we could envisage litigations regarding climate change against the Italian state taken before the administrative courts without any special difficulty thanks to the special legal standing given to ecological associations. Especially since the administrative case law is gradually expanding the legislator’s compass, so much that nowadays judges have developed additional criterions to evaluate ecological associations’ legal standing. It is in fact undisputed that locus standing for ecological associations is not only limited to the environmentalist associations included in the list by the Ministry of Ecological Transition. Other associations can take action when the association’s statute compraises the environmental protection aim; when they have a stable connection with the affected territory and an adequate organization; when they have been operative since a significant amount of time (the association should not be constituted for the legal action itself). The key concept is the “<em>vicinitas</em>”, that is the proximity to the affected areas, which is able to make the associations’ interest “differentiated and distinguished” from other associations. It is always underlined by scholars that thus “openness” should not lead to the increase of popular actions, admitted only in exceptional cases.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This concern does not fade away even with the new tendencies of administrative case law. In fact, the administrative jurisprudence more and more often acknowledges the existence of a “global <em>vicinitas</em>”<a href="#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36">[36]</a>. It could appear as a contradiction in terms, but it indicates a legal standing with wider and wider boundaries, in which the environmental interest, by its very nature, surpasses national borders.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to this, an even more innovative tendence is that case law recognized that the Aarhus Convention might found <em>per se</em> legal standing: the article 9 guarantees access to review procedure for members of the public concerned to challenge substantive or procedural legality of decisions, acts or omissions subject to public participation provisions of art. 6<a href="#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37">[37]</a> when their interest is “sufficient”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, nowadays part of the jurisprudence evaluates legal standing of environmental associations on the basis of the Italian Constitution (art. 3 and 24, which founds the right to take legal action to protect own rights and legitimate interests) and the international regulations as Aarhus Convention. The result is an attempt to get a wider and wider <em>locus standi</em> to guarantee an effective protection<a href="#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38">[38]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">However, we have to say that these new tendencies are considered by the majority of administrative case law as – at least to this day- only “cultural suggestions”<a href="#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39">[39]</a> or worthy attempts to “make justiciable juridical positions more and more standardized and less and less “individualized” (at least regarding the injury suffered)”<a href="#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40">[40]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, we can say that-beyond special legal standing- the traditional categories stand firm; even nowadays the administrative case law demands that the claimant asserts to be the holder of an individual subjective position, “qualified and differentiated”<a href="#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41">[41]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Meanwhile, the legal standing before ordinary jurisdiction for the ecological associations seems to be more problematic because in this case there are no special legal standing provided by law<a href="#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42">[42]</a>. So, they should prove to be the holders of a subjective rights, in accordance with the ordinary rules for locus standi. In that case, we have the above-mentioned difficulties because of the features of climate.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Actually, the comparison at the beginning with other climate change lawsuits in different law systems seem to show that ordinary locus standi rules are not suitable for this kind of litigation, having often a special legal provision needed.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Otherwise, an alternative could be that the claimants would issue a popular action or a class action where the locus standi is extended, respectively, to “anyone” or to people belonging to a specific group. However, in Italy such actions are strictly exceptional, having to be provided expressly by law<a href="#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43">[43]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The Italian legal system currently provides only for two popular actions: a supplementary one in which “every voter” can take legal action in place of Municipalities and Provinces if they remain inactive; and a “corrective” one in which “every voter or anyone who has interest” can take legal action in order to invalidate the mayor and province president’s election<a href="#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44">[44]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Therefore, such an action has never been introduced by the Italian legislator with reference to climate.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">As far as class actions, recently the Italian legislator has introduced specific provisions on “collective lawsuits” in the code of civil procedure<a href="#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45">[45]</a>. They decided to revoke the previous class action, which aimed to protect the consumers, in order to extend the scope of class actions. In that way, nowadays, any member of a class, holder of a “homogeneous” right, can take legal action before the Courts.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">A wider and wider class action could indeed open new scenarios in climate change litigations. However, the Italian class action has been conceived as an additional instrument to address the Courts<a href="#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46">[46]</a>, in order to simplify the access to justice. To this day, therefore, the class member should have the legal standing <em>per se</em> and class action is not a way to sidestep the locus standi rules.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">That is why claimants are led to adopt a human right based approach, thus returning to the critical issues mentioned before.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Not least among them is that this kind of approach to climate litigations could lead to emphasize those features that are able to “differentiate” and “individualize” the juridical position in order to ensure their access to justice. This approach could undermine the collective dimension of climate change, which is instead common for all and shared by everyone. In other words, there would be the risk to bend a situation that is basically collective to make it fit to the current juridical instruments.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, in addition to legal standing, further problematic issues such as interest in acting, causal link demonstration and execution of the judgment could be discussed. However, we decided to focus on legal standing because it seems to be the most inescapable question to which the Italian judge will have to deal.</p>
<ol style="text-align: justify;" start="4">
<li><strong>Non-judicial cases</strong></li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align: justify;">It is necessary to mention the instruments of non-judicial dispute resolutions to complete the framework of climate change proceedings. Besides The Last Judgement, in fact, we can also identify several attempts to bring environmental issues before a not-jurisdictional Authority.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The main instrument is based on the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. These are recommendations addressed by governments to multinational enterprises<a href="#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47">[47]</a>. They aim to ensure that the operations of these enterprises are set out in harmony with government policies and sustainable development. The Guidelines provide voluntary principles and standards, that consist of recommendations. Hence, the observance of the Guidelines by enterprises is voluntary and not legally binding.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">These can be considered as an expression of a larger system which emphasizes the rise of voluntary standards related to corporate sustainability and responsibility. In some scholars’ opinion, NCPs constitutes an expression of the problem of the “inadequacy of the neoliberal response to correcting the negative impacts of transnational power relationships within today’s hyper-pluralized economic order of trade and market liberalization”, regarding the “role of law within market globalization”<a href="#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48">[48]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Governments adhering to the Guidelines establish National Contact Points<a href="#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49">[49]</a> to improve the effectiveness of the Guidelines, by contributing to the resolution of issues in specific instances in a manner that is (or should be) impartial, predictable, equitable and compatible with the principles and standards of the Guidelines. However, NCPs “do not have the authority to deliver legal remedy and enforceable decisions, but rather act as a forum for discussion aimed at resolving issues that arise during the implementation of the OECD Guidelines”<a href="#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50">[50]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The NCP, if the issues raised need further examinations, offers good offices to help the parties involved to resolve the issues. It assists the parties in dealing with the issues by facilitating the access to consensual dispute resolution. If the parties involved reach an agreement on the issues raised, the NCP will make publicly available a report with the results of the proceedings.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Italy established the Italian NCP in 2004 within the Ministry of Economic development<a href="#_ftn51" name="_ftnref51">[51]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In this context, several instances have been proposed before the Italian NCP concerning climate change. They concern in particular the level of emissions of several corporations and how their business activities affect our climate.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In our opinion, even if they are not legal disputes, these proceedings could be considered as climate change disputes without any doubts. In addition to this, the legal team that wrote the instances aimed for raising a public debate and changing industrial policies. That is why these attempts could be identified also as “strategic”, in the sense defined previously.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The specific instances are:</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">1)        Rete Legalità per il Clima (Environmental lawyers net for the climate) against Eni.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Eni is an Italian multinational oil and gas corporation. The object of the instance is its strategic business plan that envisages an emission increase in the next three years and a later decrease of emissions which is inadequate to obtain the goals of the Paris Agreement. More in depth, the strategic business plan would not include any risk evaluation about the impact of its activity on the climate<a href="#_ftn52" name="_ftnref52">[52]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">It is important to note that Eni is a private company but the majority shareholder is the Italian government. That is why the claimants question the independence and impartiality of the Italian NPC. In fact, they assert that for an organism that is established in – as part of- the public administration would be difficult to maintain an equal distance from the two parties. Moreover, there could be the risk that a Ministry that has “economic development” as its main institutional aim could be less sensitive to environmental issues/needs/interests<a href="#_ftn53" name="_ftnref53">[53]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">2)        Rete Legalità per il Clima (Environmental lawyers net for the climate) against Veronesi spa.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Veronesi spa is a large company in the field of meat production.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In this case the premise of the claimants’ argumentation is that intensive farming is no longer sustainable, considering its environmental impacts, such as methane emissions, oil consumption in every phase of intensive farming and the loss of biodiversity.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The methane decrease would be particularly effective in preventing climate change for its specific features. In the short term, in fact, methane is more dangerous than carbon dioxide for climate stability.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">The claimants complain about the lack of transparency of the company and its refusal to provide the requested information. Even the environmental plan adopted by the company, as shown in their official site, seems to be inadequate to mitigate the environmental impacts of their activities<a href="#_ftn54" name="_ftnref54">[54]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Both initiatives aim to find an agreement that would envisage a shared commitment to enhance these aspects, in accordance with the Guidelines.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Conditio sine qua non</em> for the effectiveness of such a dispute resolution is that each company agrees to take part in the negotiation as well as to honour their commitment; otherwise, any sanction would be imposed due to the non-binding nature of the PCN. The claimants could only ask for the follow-up activities of the Italian NCP. However, the monitoring of the agreement is left to the request of the parties and the conclusion of the instances “often ends in promises of continued dialogue, mediation agreement or recommendations by NCPs”<a href="#_ftn55" name="_ftnref55">[55]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">These are some of the limits of this kind of approach and maybe the reasons for their ineffectiveness. But if these instances are able to arise a social debate, then the corporates could be more attentive to engage in the negotiations and honour their commitment<a href="#_ftn56" name="_ftnref56">[56]</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> In <a href="http://climatecasechart.com/">http://climatecasechart.com/</a>, we can find two databases of climate change litigation: one based on the U.S. experience and the other about the Global Climate Change Litigation database, which includes all cases except those in the U.S. They are updated regurarly: the U.S. database currently includes 1522 cases, while the Global one 654, from over 40 countries. The criteria to fit into the databases are rather strict: “cases must must generally be brought before judicial bodies […] and in general, cases that may have a direct impact on climate change, but do not explicitly raise climate issues, are also not included in the database. Examples of such cases may include challenges to government inaction on local air pollution or challenges to the development of fossil fuel infrastructure on the basis of other types of harm to human health and/or the environment”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In addition to this, see <em>Global Climate Litigation Report, 2020 Status Review</em>, published by the United Nations Environment Programme in cooperation with the Sabin Center for Climate Change Law at Columbia University. It provides an overview of the state of climate change litigation around the world until 2020, showing a rapid increase compared to 2017(“It updates our 2017 report on the same and finds there has been a rapid increase in climate litigation. In 2017 there were 884 climate change cases brought in 24 countries. In 2020 the number of cases has nearly doubled with at least 1,550 cases filed in 38 countries”), p. 2.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> M. Carducci, <em>La ricerca dei caratteri differenziali della “giustizia climatica</em>”, DPCE online, 2, 2020. It provides an analysis of the genesis of the concept.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3">[3]</a> Several scholars studied the distributional aspect of climate change impacts, finding that “climate change is likely to impact more severely on the poorer people of the world, because they are more exposed to the weather, because they are closer to the biophysical and experience limits of climate, and because their adaptive capacity is lower”. R. S.J. Tol, T. Downing, O. J Kuik, J. B. Smith, <em>Distributional aspects of climate change impacts, </em>in <em>Global Environmental Change, </em>Vol. 14, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 259-272. Besides the different impacts between the countries, it has been studied also the climate change impacts within the same country: in this case vulnerability to climate change depends on income and others factors like gender. See A. H.X. Goh, <em>A literature review of the gender-differentiated impacts of climate change on women’s and men’s assets and well-being in developing countries</em>, CAPRi Working Paper, 106, 2012.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4">[4]</a> The concept of “common but differentiated responsibilities” (CDR) is receiving more and more recognition. “Common” suggests that certain risks affect every nation on earth. However, responsibilities are said to be “differentiated,” in that not all countries should contribute equally. “CDR charges some nations, ordinarily the rich, with carrying a greater share of the burden than others, ordinarily the poor”. Christopher D. Stone, <em>Common But Differentiated Responsibilities in International Law, </em>American Journal of International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2017. See also Philippe Cullet, <em>Common but Differentiated Responsibilities, </em>in<em> Research Handbook on International Environmental Law, </em>Edited by Malgosia Fitzmaurice, David M. Ong, and Panos Merkouris Handbook, 2010.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">We might consider the “Loss and Damage Fund”as the most recent application of this concept. The “Loss and Damage Fund” has been established by the the 27th UN Climate Change Conference (COP27) and aims to provide financial assistance to nations most vulnerable and impacted by the effects of climate change, through a compensation paid by the countries responsible for high carbon emissions.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">We have to underly that this decision represents only the first step and it will be necessary to operationalize it in the coming period: what form the fund should take, which countries should contribute and how the money should be distributed have to be be decided yet.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In the words of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Antonio Guterres, “This will not be enough, but it is a much needed political signal to rebuild broken trust”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">See A. Wyns, <em>COP27 establishes loss and damage fund to respond to human cost of climate change. Deal on compensation for climate impacts represents major milestone for climate justice, </em><a href="http://www.thelancet">The Lancet</a>, Vol 7, January 2023.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5">[5]</a> D. Markell, J.B. Ruhl, <em>An Empirical Assessment of Climate Change in the courts: A New Jurisprudence or Business as Usual?, </em>Florida Law Review, 15, 2012; M. Burger, J. Gundlach, <em>The Status of Climate Change Litigation: A Global Review, </em>UN Environment Programme, 2017.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6">[6]</a> M. Carducci, <em>La ricerca dei caratteri differenziali della “giustizia climatica”,</em> DPCE online, 2020; Baldin, <em>Towards the judicial recognition of the right to live in a stable climate system in the European legal space?</em>, in DPCE on-line, 2020.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7">[7]</a> J. Setzer, R. Byrnes, <em>Global Trends in Climate Change Litigation: 2020 Snapshot</em>, London School of Economics, 2020.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8">[8]</a> Sentence n. 9, 3rd of September 2019, Plenary of the Council of State.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9">[9]</a> In Italian, “<em>condanna ad un facere pubblicistico</em>”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10">[10]</a> The Cassation’s model was the Ioane Teitiota v. New Zealand decision, made by the UN Human Rights Committee in 2020. The Italian Court interpreted the article 14, let. C of. Decrete 251/2007 in a new way: “to obtain that protection, the judges have to consider serious threats to life coming from not only harmed conflicts but also from all the circumstances which can endanger people’s life and dignity”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11">[11]</a> S. Valaguzza, <em>Liti strategiche e cambiamento climatico</em>, Rivista Giuridica dell’Ambiente, 1, 2021, p.70 (author’s translation).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12">[12]</a> Ibidem.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13">[13]</a> https://giudiziouniversale.eu/</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14">[14]</a> Legge Costituzionale (constitutional law) n. 1/2022. For the first comments, bibliographical references are: R. Bin, <em>Il disegno costituzionale</em>, Lavoro e diritto, 1, 2022; M. Cecchetti, <em>La riforma degli articoli 9 e 41 Cost.: un’occasione mancata per il futuro delle politiche ambientali?,</em> Quaderni costituzionali, 2, 2022; F. De Leonardis, <em>La transizione ecologica come modello di sviluppo di sistema: spunti sul ruolo delle amministrazioni, </em>Diritto Amministrativo, 4, 2021; F. Fracchia, <em>L’ambiente nell’art. 9 della Costituzione: un approccio in “negativo”, </em>Il diritto dell’economia, 1, 2022.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15">[15]</a> Climate tipping points are “conditions beyond which changes in a part of the climate system become self-perpetuating”. These changes due to changing climate could push parts of the Earth system into abrupt or irreversible change, leading dangerous impacts for humanity. The theory of potentially abrupt changes in the Earth system appeared in a Nature tudy in 1987 by Wally Broecker for the first time: he argued that palaeoclimate data suggests the “Earth’s climate does not respond to forcing in a smooth and gradual way. Rather, it responds in sharp jumps which involve large-scale reorganisation of Earth’s system”. Later on, IPCC started to use the global tipping point theory in its fourth assessment report in these terms “We define abrupt climate change as a large-scale change in the climate system that takes place over a few decades or less, persists (or is anticipated to persist) for at least a few decades, and causes substantial disruptions in human and natural systems”. Some of the global tipping points that has been studied are: the West Antarctic ice sheet collapse, the mountain glaciers loss, the Amazon rainforest dieback and the Boreal permafrost abrupt thaw.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">See A. Staal, A. Abrams, F. Jesse, A. Winkelmann, R. Sakschewski, B. Loriani, S. Fetzer, I. Cornell, S. E. Rockström, J. Lenton, <em>Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points</em>, Science, Vol. 377, Issue 6611, 2022. Their analysis indicates that even global warming of 1°C, a threshold that we already have passed, puts us at risk by triggering some tipping points.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16">[16]</a> MedECC (Mediterranean Experts on Climate and Environmental Change), <em>Climate and Environmental Change in the Mediterranean Basin – Current Situation and Risks for the Future. First Mediterranean Assessment Report</em>, Cramer, W., Guiot, J., Marini, K. (eds.), Union for the Mediterranean, Plan Bleu, UNEP/MAP, Marseille, France, 2020. The Mediterranean region warms 20% faster than the rest of the globe. In particular, Italy and other Southern European countries are “already among the most critically affected by global warming in Europe and will experience disproportionally higher warming in the next decades. Under current emission trajectories leading to about 3°C warming by the end of the century, a today’s Italian 15-year-old would live more than 2 thirdsof his life above 1.5°C and almost half his life above 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Italy is projected to experience some of the most intense heat waves across Europe, with a high increase in frequency for extreme droughts and increasing desertification particularly in the South (especially Sicily), leading to a higher risk of wildfires. Under a high warming scenario, annual precipitations will decrease by up to -30% at the end of the century compared to the baseline period of 1971-2000. Under a warming of 3.0°C by the end of the century, around 50% of the Mediterranean region will be under drought conditions and these droughts will last on average 10 years. Under scenarios exceeding &gt;4°C (RCP8.5) global mean temperature rise by 2100, the local sea levels around the Italian coastline will rise by around 60 cm or more in 2081- 2100, relative to 1986-2005. Limiting warming to around 1.6°C (RCP2.6) will reduce local sea level rise to about 20-40cms. In addition, Northern Italy is projected to experience some of the most severe floods in Europe. Italy is currently a hotspot for landslides in Europe. Debris flow and shallow landslides are projected to increase particularly in the center and in the south. Even though fires in Italy have decreased in recent years, increasing number of droughts, heat waves and dry spells increase the length and severity of the fire season. Under a high emission scenario (RCP8.5) the projected change in the fire weather index shows an increase in risk by more than 40% for some regions in Italy”. N. van Maanen, E. Theokritoff, A. Lanson, I. Menke, C. Schleussner, <em>Climate Impacts in Italy, </em>Climate Analytics, 2020.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17">[17]</a> A. Patroni Griffi, <em>Scienza e diritto ai tempi dell’emergenza da Covid-19: qualche annotazione</em>, in G. De Minico &#8211; M. Villone (a cura di), Stato di diritto emergenza tecnologia, p. 41 ss; Enzo Cheli, <em>Scienza, tecnica e diritto: dal modello costituzionale agli indirizzi della giurisprudenza costituzionale, </em>Rivista AIC (Associazione Italiana Costituzionalisti), 1, 2017.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18">[18]</a> Climate Analytics is a non-profit organisation based in Berlin, Germany which brings together several climate scientists. They work “to advance scientific knowledge on climate science, policy and impacts and make this information accessible to stakeholders working in the international climate change arena”; their guiding principle is <em>“supporting science based policy to prevent dangerous climate change enabling sustainable development”,</em> https://climateanalytics.org<em>/ .</em></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19">[19]</a> S. Valaguzza, <em>Liti strategiche: il contenzioso climatico salverà il pianeta?</em>, in Diritto Processuale Amministrativo, 2021, 293 e ss.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20">[20]</a> Although it seeks to “protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind”, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is not designed to protect human rights.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Linking climate impacts to human rights has been the following step, quite recent, derived originally from the claims of the Inuit and the Small Island States. As far as the Inuit is concerned, in their 2005 petition before the the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights they claimed that “the impacts of climate change could be attributed to acts and omissions of the U.S., and violated their fundamental human rights – in particular the rights to the benefits of culture, to property, to the preservation of health, life, physical integrity, security, and a means of subsistence, and to residence, movement, and inviolability of the home”. Meanwhile, as far as the Small Island States is concerned, a campaign in order to link climate change and human rights was launched in the early 2000, so that representatives of Small Island Developing States adopted the Male’ Declaration on the Human Dimension of Global Climate Change in 2007, requesting, inter alia, that the UN Human Rights Council discuss the link between climate change and human rights. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) conducted a study on this relationship, arguing that “climate change threatens the enjoyment of a wide spectrum of human rights, including rights to life, health, food, water, housing, and self-determination”, concluding that “states have obligations under human rights law to address climate change”. S. A. McInerney-Lankford, M. Darrow, L. Rajamani, <em>Human Rights and Climate Change: A Review of the International Legal Dimensions</em>, World Bank Study, 2011, pp. 22, 23, 24., pp. 22, 23, 24.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21">[21]</a> Several studies highlighted that climate change threatens, inter alia, the right to life (the OHCHR’s report states: “a number of observed and projected effects of climate change will pose direct and indirect threats to human lives. IPCC projects with high confi dence an increase in people suffering from death, disease and injury from heat waves, floods, storms, fires and droughts. Equally, climate change will affect the right to life through an increase in hunger and malnutrition and related disorders impacting on child growth and development, cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality related to ground-level ozone. Climate change will exacerbate weather-related disasters which already have devastating effects on people and their enjoyment of the right to life, particularly in the developing world”, UNCHR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, <em>Report on Climate Change and Human Rights</em>, 2009); the right to adequate food as an element of the right to an adequate standard of living, fundamental to the inherent dignity of the human person (climate impacts may endanger both availability and accessibility to food. The IPCC report states that “for lower latitudes, even for small local temperature increases, crop productivity is projected to decrease, thereby increasing the risk of hunger. Increases in extreme weather events, including droughts and floods, will also negatively affect crop production, thereby placing both availability and accessibility at risk”); the right to health (the OHCHR’s report states: “climate change is projected to affect the health status of millions of people, including through increases in malnutrition, increased diseases and injury due to extreme weather events, and an increased burden of diarrhoeal, cardio-respiratory and infectious diseases. Global warming may also affect the spread of malaria and other vector borne diseases in some parts of the world. Overall, the negative health eff ects will disproportionately be felt in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and the Middle East”; the right to water (the OHCHR’s report states: “Loss of glaciers and reductions in snow cover are projected to increase and to negatively affect water availability for more than one-sixth of the world’s population supplied by melt water from mountain ranges. Weather extremes, such as drought and fl ooding, will also impact on water supplies. Climate change will thus exacerbate existing stresses on water resources and compound the problem of access to safe drinking water, currently denied to an estimated 1.1 billion people globally and a major cause of morbidity and disease”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22">[22]</a> Scholars have noted a “rights-turn” in climate litigations, that is those in which the claimants use “human rights or constitutional rights to challenge governments and corporations for taking inadequate climate protection measures”. According the 2021 Report on Global Trends in climate change litigation, edited by LSE University, Columbia Law School, the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy and the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, the use of human rights arguments in climate cases continues to rise: “more than 100 human rights cases have now been captured in the US and non-US databases, with 29 of these cases filed in 2020 and a further five in 2021. Significant new developments over the past year have included the filing of three cases before the European Court of Human Rights, the first of their kind to come before the Court. The majority of human rights cases have been brought against governments and a small but significant minority brought against companies. In addition, human rights arguments have been used on at least one occasion by protesters seeking to defend their efforts to block new fossil fuel infrastructure (Trans Mountain Pipeline v. Misavair). As many of these cases have been filed in recent years, almost half have yet to be decided; 32 decided cases have had negative outcomes, and 25 have had positive outcomes”. Setzer Joana and Byrnes Rebecca, <em>Global Trends in Climate Change Litigation: 2020 Snapshot</em>, London School of Economics, 2020, p. 32.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23">[23]</a> S. Valaguzza, <em>Liti strategiche: il contenzioso climatico salverà il pianeta? &#8211; Strategic litigation: will climate change litigation save the planet?</em>, in Diritto Processuale Amministrativo, 2021, 293 e ss.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24">[24]</a> According some scholars, the right to a stable climate (sometimes cited as “right to balanced climate” or “right to a safe climate” or “right to emissions compatible with climate stability”) should be admitted if we consider the bottom-up development of some rights: one might consider, in fact, that a pretence is justified when there is a shared need to protection of a particular situation. In that case, the “innate sense of justice” should render those pretences into rights. A. Pisanò, <em>Genesis of a new right. Arguments and reasons supporting the right to climate, </em>Ars Interpretandi, 2, 2022, pp. 29-46.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">However, it should be noted that, even in this hypothesis, the right to a stable climate can not “express a concept of possession or a projection of the individual’s powers on climate system” because climate can not be object of any privative right, but represents the pre-condition of human life. (“Climate is not mine or yours, it is the premise conditioning the right” M. Carducci, <em>Cambiamento climatico (diritto costituzionale</em>), Digesto delle Discipline Pubblicistiche, Aggiornamento, Wolters Kluwer Italia, 2021, p. 53.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In other cases, scholars tried to find the foundation of the right to a stable climate in different rights already granted: in one hypothesis, the right to a stable climate could be admitted as a “part” of the environment itself, considering climate as included in the notion of environment; in others one, the right to a stable climate could derive from the right to life itself or the right to health or even the right to human dignity.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25">[25]</a> R. Luporini, <em>The ‘Last Judgment’: Early reflections on upcoming climate litigation in Italy</em>, Question of International Law, 2021, p. 27.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26">[26]</a> Many scholars wrote about Urgenda case. See K. J. de Graaf and J. H. Jans, <em>The Urgenda Decision, </em>Journal of Environmental Law, Oxford University Press, 2015, Vol. 27, No. 3 (November 2015), pp. 517-527; S. Baldin, P. Viola, <em>L’obbligazione climatica nelle aule giudiziarie</em>. <em>Teorie ed elementi determinanti di giustizia climatica, </em>Diritto pubblico comparato ed europeo, 3, 2021; G. Ghinelli, <em>Le condizioni dell&#8217;azione nel contenzioso climatico: c&#8217;è un giudice per il clima?, </em>Rivista Trimestrale di Diritto e Procedura Civile, 4, 2021; M. Magri, <em>Il 2021 è stato l’anno della “giustizia climatica”?, </em>AmbienteDiritto, 4, 2021; M. Montini, <em>Verso una giustizia climatica basata sulla tutela dei diritti umani</em>, Ordine Internazionale e diritti umani, 2020, p. 506-537.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In the Urgenda case we have the first European verdict that orders a member state of UE to reduce greenhouse gas emissions within 2020 of at least the 25% of 1990 levels. The judges acknowledged the existence of a duty of care from the liability regulation in the Dutch Civil Code (artt. 3:296 e 6:162), interpreted on the basis of the European Convention on Human Rights in the first instance. Afterwards, instead, the appeal judges stated that that duty of care derives directly from articles 2 and 8 of European Convention on Human Rights, underlying the supranational protection of the subjective situation.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27">[27]</a> R. Luporini, <em>The ‘Last Judgment’:Early reflections on upcoming climate litigation in Italy, </em>cit<em>.</em></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28">[28]</a> R. Bin, <em>Il disegno costituzionale</em>, cit.; M. Magri, <em>Il 2021 è stato l’anno della “giustizia climatica”?, </em>cit.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29">[29]</a> Actually, we can observe the same mechanism in several cases regarding different subjects, every time the claimants need to take actions for collective interests allegedly violated by a German law (for example in order to protect the value of German currency).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30">[30]</a> Many scholars wrote about this sentence, amongst others see W. Kahl, M. Daebel, <em>Climate Change Litigation in Germany An Overview of Politics, Legislation and Especially Jurisdiction regarding Climate Protection and Climate Damages, </em>European Energy and Environmental Law Review, Vol. 28, Issue 2, 2019, pp. 67 – 76; Louis J. Kotzé, <em>Neubauer et al. versus Germany: Planetary Climate Litigation for the Anthropocene?</em>, German Law Journal, Cambridge University Press, 2021; G. Puleio, <em>Rimedi civilistici e cambiamento climatico antropogenetico</em>, Persona e Mercato, 3, 2021.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31">[31]</a> It is interesting to notice that in this case the Federal Constitutional Court founded its reasoning not on international obligations but on the future generations’ constitutional rights. That is probably due also to the 2002 reform of Grundgesetz, when it has been added that “Mindful also of its responsibility towards future generations, the state shall protect the natural foundations of life and animals by legislation and, in accordance with law and justice, by executive and judicial action, all within the framework of the constitutional order” (article 20a).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32">[32]</a> E. Guarna Assanti, <em>Il ruolo innovativo del contenzioso climatico tra legittimazione ad agire e separazione dei poteri dello Stato. Riflessioni a partire dal caso Urgenda</em>, Federalismi, 17, 2021; M. Magistà, <em>Public interest litigation: origini e prospettive</em>, Rivista AIC, 2019; F. Scalia, <em>La giustizia climatica,</em> Federalismi, 10, 2021.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">This expression was used for the first time by A. Chayes in “The Role of Judge in Public Law Litigation”, in Harvard Law Review, 1976, for the lawsuits in which the American lawyers -belonging to the “public interest law movement”- stood for people in need pro bono. The leading case is Brown vs Board Education in which the US Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the racial segregation in public schools.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33">[33]</a> Actually, in the US legal system have been requested strict conditions of admissibility (injury of fact, causation and redressability). On the contrary, in India and Pakistan any citizen can take action in order to protect public interests, regardless of the assumption of a subjective position. That’s why the Indian and Pakistan public interest litigation has been defined as a “social action litigation”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34">[34]</a> Citizens can not address directly the Constitutional Court in Italy. The jurisdictional authority can raise an issue of constitutionality regarding a legislative act before Constitutional Court during a lawsuit (on his own initiative or on party’s request) only if the issue is “relevant for the solution of the trial” and “not clearly unfounded”. The Italian legal system also allows a petition “in via principale”, when the State or the Regions raise an issue of constitutionality against, respectively, regional laws or national laws.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35">[35]</a> The article 21-bis comma 1 of law n. 287/90 permits the Competition Authority (AGCM or Antitrust Authority) to take legal action against the “general administrative acts, regulations and any administrative provisions that violate competition law”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Two different theories have been suggested by the Italian scholars on this special legal standing. According to the first theory, it consists of a legal standing completely detached from an individual subjective position, “qualified and differentiated”. In this case, it would be introduced an exceptional form of “objective jurisdiction” (that is the jurisdiction in which claimants take action in order to protect a general interest, like in criminal trials. The goal is not the protection of individual positions). On the contrary, according to the second theory, the AGCM’s power to take legal action is included in the traditional “subjective jurisdiction” because the Antitrust authority wants to protect a “qualified and differentiated” interest, that is the competition. It is “special” because the interest of competition, usually “unqualified and undifferentiated” becomes an individual subjective position thanks to the Antitrust Authority (it becomes a collective interest that can be invoked according to the general rules on legal standing).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36">[36]</a> One of the first sentences in which scholars identified a “global <em>vicinitas</em>” is Council of State, sez. VI, 22 September 2014, n. 4775. In this case the judges acknowledged legal standing to an Austrian municipality and the Austrian Alpine Club against an act of Bolzano province, which authorized a wind farm in a border area with Austria.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37">[37]</a> Aarhus Convention, art. 9.2: “Each Party shall, within the framework of its national legislation, ensure that members of the public concerned having a sufficient interest […] have access to a review procedure before a court of law and/or another independent and impartial body established by law, to challenge the substantive and procedural legality of any decision, act or omission subject to the provisions of article 6 and, where so provided for under national law and without prejudice to paragraph 3 below, of other relevant provisions of this Convention”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38">[38]</a> Administrative case law began to use also the notion of “horizontal subsidiarity” (included in the Italian Constitution, art. 118 co.4) in order to achieve the same result of an effective protection.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39">[39]</a> F. Scalia, <em>La giustizia climatica, </em>cit.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40">[40]</a> Cons. St., Sez. V, 27 July 2011, n. 4502.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41">[41]</a> Actually, even the reference to Aarhus Convention and to principle of horizontal subsidiarity has been toned down. According to several scholars, in fact, that is only a strengthening of criterions which have been used by administrative jurisprudence for 30 years. Therefore, it would not be a real innovation. See F. Scalia, <em>La giustizia climatica, </em>cit.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42">[42]</a> Italian law n. 349/1986 states that, as for the environmental damage is concerned, only the Ministry of Ecological Transition can address the ordinary jurisdiction, with the potential participation of ecological associations. That is actually a limitation of taking action for the environmental associations regarding environmental damage because of the assumption that it would be more appropriate that the State deals with this kind of damage, concerning usually vast areas.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43">[43]</a> Even when the Italian legislator seems to have introduced popular action, case law interpreted those provisions as regular actions. We have a representative case in the interpretation of law n. 765 of 1967: that law allowed “everyone” to inspect building permits and take action before the administrative courts if the permits were against the law. Case law, indeed, excluded that the legislator wanted to introduce a popular action. On the contrary, they considered that the claimant should have a “qualified and different” position regarding the building permission. It means, fundamentally, that the act contested should have damaged the claimant’s position in a “tangible, immediate and present” way.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44">[44]</a> Articles 9 and 70 of Testo Unico degli Enti Locali (Local Government Consolidation Act).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45">[45]</a> Law n. 31/2019.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46">[46]</a> Article 840 bis code of civil procedure states that “individual and homogeneous rights can be protected even through class action” (“I diritti individuali omogenei sono tutelabili anche attraverso l’azione di classe”).</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47">[47]</a> The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises have received significant scholarly attention: A. Chugh, <em>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises</em>, International Legal Materials, 40(1), 2001; C. Schliemann, <em>Procedural Rules for the Implementation of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. A Public International Law Perspective</em>, German Law Journal, 13(1), 2012; S. Tully, <em>The 2000 Review of the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, </em>International &amp; Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 50, Issue 2, 2001. In Italian legal doctrine: F. Borgia, <em>La soft law come strumento di regolazione delle attività delle imprese multinazionali</em>, Diritto commerciale internazionale, 2, 2010, pag. 309.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48">[48]</a> K. Bhatt, G. Erdem Türkelli, <em>OECD National Contact Points as Sites of Effective Remedy: New Expressions of the Role and Rule of Law within Market Globalization?,</em> Business and Human Rights Journal, 6, 2021, p. 425.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49">[49]</a> NcPs were actually established in 1984, but acquired a remedial function under the OECD Guidelines only from 2000.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50">[50]</a> K. Bhatt, G. Erdem Türkelli, <em>OECD National Contact Points as Sites of Effective Remedy: New Expressions of the Role and Rule of Law within Market Globalization?, </em>ivi p. 426.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref51" name="_ftn51">[51]</a> For a peer review report on the Italian National Contact Point see: OECD (2017), OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises National Contact Point Peer Reviews: Italy. https://mneguidelines.oecd.org/ncps/</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref52" name="_ftn52">[52]</a> It is possible to find the summary document of the instance on the site of one of the associations supporter of the instance:<a href="https://asud.net/"> https://asud.net/</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref53" name="_ftn53">[53]</a> K. Bhatt, G. Erdem Türkelli, <em>OECD National Contact Points as Sites of Effective Remedy: New Expressions of the Role and Rule of Law within Market Globalization?,</em> cit., p. 443. “Ensuring the independence of NCPs has been identified both by civil society and by the peer reviews of various NCPs as a means through which NCP proceedings and decisions can be rendered more legitimate, transparent, accountable and reliable”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref54" name="_ftn54">[54]</a> It is possible to find the summary document of the instance on the site of one of the associations “Rete Legalità per il clima”:<a href="https://www.giustiziaclimatica.it/trasparenza-climatica/"> https://www.giustiziaclimatica.it/trasparenza-climatica/</a>.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref55" name="_ftn55">[55]</a> Ivi, p. 445. The Authors suggest the “introduction of compulsory follow-up to concluded instances” in order to enhance effectiveness.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref56" name="_ftn56">[56]</a> Several studies focus on OECD National Contact Points effectiveness: K. Bhatt, G. Erdem Türkelli, <em>OECD National Contact Points as Sites of Effective Remedy: New Expressions of the Role and Rule of Law within Market Globalization?,</em> Business and Human Rights Journal, 6, 2021; A. Rasche, <em>The UN Global Compact and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Their Enforcement Mechanisms</em>, The Cambridge Companion to Business and Human Rights Law, Cambridge University Press, 2021; G. Schuler, <em>Effective Governance through Decentralized Soft Implementation: The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, </em>German Law Journal, Cambridge University Press, 2019.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">
<p>Views: 0</p><p>L'articolo <a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrinan/considerations-on-climate-change-litigations-in-italy/">Considerations on climate change litigations in Italy</a> proviene da <a href="https://www.giustamm.it">Giustamm</a>.</p>
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		<title>RESOCONTO CONVEGNO DEL 25 ottobre 2021 “Il Codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione”</title>
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<p>UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI “SAPIENZA”   DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN DIRITTO PUBBLICO, COMPARATO E INTERNAZIONALE &#8211; Curriculum Diritto Amministrativo Europeo dell&#8217;Ambiente – RESOCONTO CONVEGNO DEL 25 ottobre 2021 “Il Codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione” A cura di Chiara Colognese[1] e Manuela Cundari[2] I Sessione Il 25 ottobre 2021</p>
<p>L'articolo <a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrina/resoconto-convegno-del-25-ottobre-2021-il-codice-dellambiente-a-15-anni-dalla-sua-approvazione/">RESOCONTO CONVEGNO DEL 25 ottobre 2021 “Il Codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione”</a> proviene da <a href="https://www.giustamm.it">Giustamm</a>.</p>
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<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI “SAPIENZA”</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong> </strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>DOTTORATO DI RICERCA</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>IN</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>DIRITTO PUBBLICO, COMPARATO E INTERNAZIONALE</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>&#8211; Curriculum Diritto Amministrativo Europeo dell&#8217;Ambiente –</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>RESOCONTO CONVEGNO DEL 25 ottobre 2021</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>“<em>Il Codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione</em>”</strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: justify;">A cura di Chiara Colognese<a href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1">[1]</a> e Manuela Cundari<a href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2">[2]</a></p>
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<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>I Sessione</strong></p>
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<p style="text-align: justify;">Il 25 ottobre 2021 si è tenuto presso l’Università Sapienza un convegno intitolato “Il codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione”, volto a comprendere quale sia stato (ovvero <em>se</em> ci sia stato) l’impatto del Codice sul diritto dell’ambiente, articolato in due parti. Durante la mattinata gli intervenienti, coordinati dal Prof. Fabio Giglioni, hanno riflettuto sul tema “Codificazione e principi del diritto dell’ambiente”, mentre durante la seconda sessione, tenutasi nel pomeriggio, gli intervenienti hanno riflettuto, coordinati dal Prof. Alfredo Moliterni, sulla “Codificazione tra istituti generali del diritto dell’ambiente e specifici settori”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Successivamente ai saluti istituzionali, presentati dai Professori Oliviero Diliberto, Preside della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza, Cesare Pinelli, Coordinatore del Dottorato di ricerca in “Diritto pubblico” e Fabio Giglioni, Coordinatore del Dottorato di ricerca in “Diritto pubblico, comparato e internazionale”, il convegno è stato aperto dal Prof. Stefano Grassi dell’Università degli Studi di Firenze, con una relazione sulle fonti del diritto dell’ambiente. Preso atto della difficoltà di trattare del Codice dell’ambiente come fonte del diritto, date le continue modifiche e la vicinanza nel tempo, il Professore tratteggia una panoramica sulle genesi della codificazione, arrivando alla conclusione che probabilmente la frammentarietà e disorganicità del d. lgs. 152/2006, più volte rilevata in dottrina, derivi non solo motivazioni contingenti legate alla vicenda dell’approvazione in Parlamento del decreto, ma anche strutturali, connesse, tra le altre, alla sovrapposizione dei livelli di governo e al difficile rapporto con le norme tecniche. La proposta allora è quella di procedere attraverso una legge quadro, che fissi i principi e che consenta di soddisfare un’esigenza di unitarietà del sistema, evitando però di ricercare un codice (così come inteso in senso tradizionale) che contenga l’intera normativa di dettaglio. Tale legge quadro dovrebbe quindi individuare le coordinate per prendere le decisioni in materia ambientale, fissando così definitivamente le modalità di produzione delle norme sul diritto dell’ambiente. È fatto inoltre riferimento alla riforma costituzionale attualmente in discussione, volta ad inserire il termine “ambiente” nell’art. 9 Cost.: il Professore ritiene che una riforma volta a far comparire all’interno della Carta costituzionale l’ambiente sia necessaria, ma si ridurrebbe, nei termini della proposta attualmente in discussione, in un mera “modifica in bilancio”, comprensiva cioè di elementi già presenti a livello sovranazionale e nella giurisprudenza, senza apportare alcuna innovazione. Inoltre, non sarebbe idonea a fornire le chiavi di un “vocabolario comune” della materia ambientale come una legge-quadro sui principi.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Uno sguardo sulla giurisprudenza è stato poi possibile grazie all’intervento del Presidente della VI Sezione del Consiglio di Stato Giancarlo Montedoro, attraverso la sua relazione intitolata “la giurisprudenza e la codificazione”. Secondo il Consigliere, il tema della codificazione ambientale rappresenta una manifestazione specifica della crisi della legislazione, che trova le sue radici nella transizione da uno stato monoclasse a uno stato pluriclasse. Ad oggi la difficoltà a codificare è ancora maggiore perché è maggiore la frammentazione sociale, per la quale la società non è più “pluriclasse”, ma “liquida”. In un tale contesto, in cui la legge stessa viene desacralizzata e appare sempre meno adatta a fornire una regolazione compiuta, affidare al solo legislatore il compito di riportare ad unità il sistema sembra un’illusione. Per tali motivi la giurisprudenza, in particolare nel settore dell’ambiente, gioca un ruolo indispensabile, pur correndo il rischio di portare avanti un’attività considerata eccessivamente creativa, insieme con quello di dar luogo a procedimenti giudiziari dagli esiti erratici. La giurisprudenza è ben consapevole dei limiti di un’attività giurisprudenziale di questo tipo, tanto che si rilevano tentativi di recupero di una funzione nomofilattica forte. Tuttavia, anche in quest’ottica, permane il rischio dell’ossificazione della giurisprudenza, con la conseguente inadeguatezza a fornire risposte ad un quadro costantemente in evoluzione. Infine, per quanto riguarda la riforma costituzionale attualmente in discussione, il Consigliere teme che inserire il termine “ambiente” nell’art. 9 Cost. potrebbe portare una parificazione tra ambiente, paesaggio e beni culturali, senza una approfondita riflessione sulla scala di valori imposta dall’originario art. 9 Cost., con il rischio di una regressione nei fatti della tutela paesaggistica.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">I principi generali nel codice sono stati poi trattati dal Prof. Fabrizio Fracchia dell’Università Bocconi, il quale ricorda che i principi hanno avuto da sempre un rapporto problematico con il codice: sono stati inseriti solo successivamente attraverso un decreto correttivo, molti dei principi ambientali non sono contenuti all’interno del codice (come il principio di integrazione, il principio di non regressione, il principio di resilienza, recepito oggi nell’ambito PNRR, e il principio di non arrecare danni significativi). Tuttavia, tale complessità non impedisce loro di fungere da elemento unitario della materia del diritto dell’ambiente. Inoltre, dallo studio di tali principi è possibile desumere argomenti importanti a sostegno della tesi della nozione giuridica di ambiente in termini di doverosità e non in termini di diritto: il contenuto dei principi che regolano la materia ambientale, infatti, è sempre traducibile in doveri e non in diritti. Tra i diversi principi ambientali, la pietra angolare del diritto dell’ambiente è costituita, secondo il Professore, dalla sostenibilità, che si sostanzia anch’esso in un dovere, ovverosia quello di preservare uno stock di materie prime in grado di soddisfare i bisogni anche delle generazioni future. Si comprende quindi come il fine ultimo del diritto dell’ambiente sia quello di garantire la sopravvivenza del genere umano, in un’ottica antropocentrica, che renderebbe il diritto dell’ambiente “il più egoista fra i diritti”. Proseguendo nel ragionamento, è in particolare in relazione al principio della sostenibilità ambientale che si rileverebbe maggiormente la tendenza di tali principi ad eccedere rispetto alla materia ambientale, andandosi ad applicare a diversi settori, fino a costituire un nucleo duro di concetti applicabili alla maggior parte dei problemi della modernità. I grandi temi della modernità, infatti, sono caratterizzati da elementi comuni come l’incertezza della tecnica, l’asimmetria informativa, la dimensione globale dei problemi e, non da ultimo, la possibilità di mettere in pericolo le generazioni future. Tale tendenza espansiva porta quindi il Professore a suggerire una nuova nozione di “diritto della sostenibilità” che si vada a sostituire a quella di “diritto dell’ambiente”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Viene successivamente introdotto nel dibattito un elemento di discussione dal Prof. Edoardo Chiti, dell’Università degli Studi della Tuscia e della Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, nel suo intervento su “Ambiente e diritto europeo”: nella sua concezione, infatti, è vero che la transizione ecologica mette in moto trasformazioni ma queste ultime non si esauriscono, anzi superano, il principio di sostenibilità.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La premessa del ragionamento è data dal fatto che il Codice dell’Ambiente si pone all’interno della costituzione economica europea, cioè a quell’insieme di scelte fondamentali che l’UE ha fatto rispetto ai contenuti essenziali dell’integrazione, consolidatasi dall’inizio degli anni ’90. Tale quadro d’insieme è nel contesto attuale messo alla prova dall’iniziativa politica del <em>Green New Deal</em>, che andrebbe a colpire in modo profondo alcuni istituti cardine delle scelte strutturali della costituzione economica europea. Esemplificativo del nuovo contesto sarebbe anche il fatto che, all’interno della Strategia sulla biodiversità per il 2030 della Commissione, è sì fissato l’obiettivo politico della sostenibilità, ma riferita agli ecosistemi, non allo sviluppo. Questo passaggio viene letto come la possibilità di introdurre misure potenzialmente idonee ad entrare in conflitto con gli obiettivi della costituzione economica europea ed, in particolare, con il principio dello sviluppo sostenibile, mettendo al contrario al primo posto la tutela dell’ambiente. Rispondendo ad una possibile critica riguardo all’assenza nel trattato di un qualsivoglia riferimento alla tutela degli ecosistemi, il Professore risponde suggerendo di adottare una visione meno formalistica per affrontare la questione, dando rilevanza invece al significato profondo dei principi in materia ambientale che giustificherebbe, quindi, anche un superamento della sostenibilità ambientale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Infine, in una prospettiva di confronto con le esperienze di codificazione dei nostri vicini europei, intervengono, in lingua inglese, la Prof. ssa Jessica Makowiak, dell’Université de Limoges e il Prof. Johannes Saurer dell’Universität Tübingen, con una relazione sulla codificazione ambientale, rispettivamente, in Francia e in Germania.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Riguardo all’esperienza francese, la Professoressa, dopo aver chiarito le motivazioni che hanno spinto la Francia ad adottare un Codice dell’Ambiente (tra le quali si ricorda quella di promuovere ed assicurare un riconoscimento al diritto dell’ambiente, garantire coerenza alle diverse previsioni, strutturare la legge intorno ad alcuni principi chiave), ne ha ripercorso il lungo iter di formazione, che ha preso l’avvio dalla proposta del Ministro della Giustizia J. Lecanuet nel 1976, passando per il cd. “piccolo codice” Lamarque nel 1980, fino ad arrivare al Codice attualmente in vigore (24esima edizione), composto da 7 Parti e da 3102 pagine. Si mette quindi in evidenza la fortissima crescita, anche “dimensionale” del Codice, che pone una seria esigenza di semplificazione da parte degli operatori del settore. Infine, sono rilevati alcuni fallimenti della codificazione francese: rimangono lacune importanti (ad es. la materia forestale e parte della disciplina del nucleare), sono evidenti le difficoltà date dalla gestione di un Codice elefantiaco e formatosi in modo “alluvionale”, insieme con alcune contraddizioni tra la parte legislativa e quella regolamentare.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Sono nondimeno sottolineati alcuni risultati positivi raggiunti dal Codice, che è comunque riuscito a riunire gran parte della materia ambientale, armonizzando le proprie previsioni con le sanzioni penali e amministrative e inserendo nuovi principi generali come quello di non regressione e di compensazione.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Per quanto riguarda invece l’esperienza tedesca, il Professor Saurer tratta, come imprescindibile premessa, il sistema di allocazione della competenza legislativa tra Stati e Federazione: la Costituzione federale, infatti, prevede come regola di fondo che la competenza legislativa appartenga agli Stati e, solo in via d’eccezione, alla Federazione, qualora sia espressamente previsto. Nella Repubblica Federale di Germania, quindi, le possibilità di una codificazione del diritto dell’ambiente dipendono strettamente dalla allocazione delle competenze legislative in materia ambientale operata a livello costituzionale. Inizialmente, le uniche materie attribuite alla competenza federale in materia ambientale riguardavano la protezione della natura e la gestione delle acque, fino ad arrivare, dopo la riforma del 1972, all’aggiunta delle materie del controllo dell’inquinamento dell’aria, smaltimento dei rifiuti, inquinamento acustico, ma risulta tutt’oggi assente una competenza generale federale in materia ambientale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In assenza dunque di un vero e proprio codice come risultato di una tale allocazione delle competenze, sono rilevate diverse leggi federali in materia ambientale a partire dagli anni ‘70, focalizzate però sempre su singoli settori. Successivamente, le prime leggi a respiro generale cominciano a comparire dagli anni ‘90, anche grazie all’influenza del diritto europeo, insieme con diversi progetti di codificazione appoggiati da ambienti politici e accademici, fino a questo momento rimasti senza successo.</p>
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<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>II SESSIONE</strong></p>
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<p style="text-align: justify;">Il Prof. Moliterni ha introdotto la seconda sessione individuando quelle che secondo lui sono alcune delle peculiarità che hanno caratterizzato e stanno caratterizzando il processo di codificazione.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In primo luogo, sul piano metodologico, il Professore ha rilevato che il processo di codificazione e il processo di profonda revisione della disciplina sono due fenomeni che si intrecciano e che continuano a non essere nettamente distinti, mentre, riprendendo quando sottolineato dagli esperti francesi, la codificazione può avere successo solo se si rinuncia almeno in una prima fase all’obiettivo di una riforma sostanziale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">È stato poi messo in luce come vi sia nel nostro codice una grande assenza di parte generale, che invece dovrebbe costituire un processo essenziale della codificazione – come dimostrato dall’esperienza tedesca – anche in considerazione del fatto che alcuni istituti generali come la responsabilità vengono considerati alla stregua di settori dell’ordinamento mentre dovrebbero assumere la dignità di istituti fondanti ed essere trattati nella parte generale. Si rinviene, inoltre, spesso all’interno del codice uno “scollamento” tra la dimensione organizzativa a presidio dell’ambiente e la dimensione funzionale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Si parla poi di codice come di “codice aperto”, che manca di completezza ed esaustività, dal momento che, pur nella consapevolezza della impossibilità di poter raggiungere una completa analisi di tutti i settori e di tutte le interrelazioni che compongono la codificazione ambientale, è evidente che sono rimaste fuori alcune componenti come le aree protette.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Non è pensabile, inoltre, che la codificazione ambientale, anche in considerazione della già rilevata incertezza scientifica e tecnologica che caratterizza tale materia, possa ambire a quella esigenza di stabilità che dovrebbe contraddistinguere ogni codificazione: sul punto il Prof. Moliterni ha sottolineato come dal 2006 ad oggi ci siano state circa 49 modifiche sostanziali del Codice dell’ambiente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Da ultimo, il Professore ha parlato dell’avvio di alcuni processi di “<em>fuga dal codice</em>”, con riferimento a particolari settori – come quello dei rifiuti – che pur essendo regolati dal Codice sono stati integrati da una normativa parallela ed esterna ad esso.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Le peculiarità che caratterizzano la codificazione ambientale sono state, poi, riprese dai vari relatori in merito agli istituti generali e di settore a cominciare dal Prof. Mauro Renna dell’Università Cattolica del Sacro cuore di Milano che ha parlato di codice dell’ambiente e bonifiche e che ha distinto la relazione in tre parti, partendo da un inquadramento generale della materia e dalle caratteristiche della disciplina codificata in materia di bonifica. Sul punto è stato messo in evidenza che la materia – che tra l’altro è una delle poche di non derivazione dal diritto europeo – viene trattata nella stessa parte in cui si parla di rifiuti e che nonostante vi sia uno stretto collegamento tra la disciplina delle bonifiche e quella del danno ambientale, le due discipline sono contenute nel codice in punti diversi (parte IV le bonifiche e parte VI il danno ambientale) senza che ci sia un coordinamento serio tra di esse, il che comporta spesso un incrocio o una duplicazione di norme. Il prof. Renna ha, poi, fatto presente che nella disciplina della bonifica emergono molte di quelle specificità che caratterizzano il diritto ambientale, come la frammentarietà della disciplina ed il fallimento dell’applicazione del principio di prevenzione nonché la circostanza che la disciplina delle bonifiche confermi la concezione antropocentrica della tutela ambientale, come dimostra il metodo utilizzato per il calcolo delle soglie che ha come parametro la salute del popolo e non la salute ambientale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Nella seconda parte della sua relazione il Prof. Renna ha delineato quelli che sono i principi più rilevanti in materia di bonifiche, ossia il principio “chi inquina paga”, il principio di sostenibilità finanziaria ed il principio di legalità mettendo in luce tutti gli aspetti di criticità che sono emersi in relazione a ciascuno di essi. Ciò in considerazione della notevole difficoltà ad ottenere davvero che chi ha inquinato in effetti paghi i costi della bonifica che spesso ricadono sull’amministrazione e, dunque sulla collettività, dei costi enormi che devono essere sostenuti per affrontare le bonifiche e della necessità che anche nel caso in cui venga individuato l’inquinatore, in virtù del principio di proporzionalità, si possano trovare soluzioni di compromesso, come le transazioni per quanto riguarda i siti di interesse nazionale (SIN) o la messa in sicurezza permanente (MISP) nel caso in cui il costo della bonifica sia troppo elevato.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Con specifico riferimento al principio di legalità, il Professore ha poi messo in luce i limiti che presenta la disciplina delle bonifiche che sono sia di natura soggettiva, in quanto molto spesso – anche in contrasto con il principio di irretroattività della legge – l’obbligo di bonifica viene traslato essendoci soggetti nuovi che rispondono di condotte passate, sia di natura oggettiva perché ci sono dei casi in cui, nel rispetto del principio di precauzione, anche per le sostanze non normate al superamento di certe soglie ed in presenza di studi scientifici scatta l’obbligo di attivare le procedure di bonifica.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il Prof. Renna ha, poi, concluso che la disciplina delle bonifiche nel complesso è una buona disciplina fermo restando che rimane comunque una disciplina fisiologicamente ed ontologicamente incompleta, che ha bisogno di modifiche continue e non sempre compatta, sottolineando nuovamente come uno dei principali problemi sia quello dei costi della bonifica che, come dimostrato anche dalla Corte dei Conti Europea, per una grande percentuale vengono finanziati con le risorse pubbliche. È, pertanto, necessario cercare di trovare delle soluzioni in merito come la valorizzazione della garanzia finanziaria e dell’assicurazione.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In considerazione della stretta connessione del tema della bonifica con la responsabilità amministrativa, il prof. Gian Domenico Comporti dell’Università di Siena si è occupato del Codice dell’ambiente e della responsabilità ambientale, partendo dal presupposto della rilevanza strategica della responsabilità quale risposta efficace ad una emergenza in atto ed in grado di dare un’unità di senso ad una serie di rimedi diversi.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Con l’obiettivo di ricostruire le varie stagioni di emersione della sensibilità ambientale e dell’evoluzione delle tecniche rimediali inquadrabili sotto il concetto ed il termine lato di responsabilità, il Prof. Comporti ha dapprima messo in luce come, prima che si sviluppasse nel nostro ordinamento una disciplina autonoma e specifica di tutela ambientale, fosse emersa un’esigenza di tutela che andasse oltre il diritto di proprietà e che fosse necessario dare importanza più che alle res materiali alla loro dimensione immateriale, dando spazio all’emersione di nuovi valori quali le bellezze naturali, la salute, l’assetto del territorio e facendo ricorso a misure che in qualche modo limitassero l’esercizio del diritto di proprietà, cercando di uscire dagli schemi delle semplici relazioni individuali a carattere privatistico.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il Professore ha sottolineato come tale nuova prospettiva sia confermata dalla giurisprudenza della Corte dei Conti degli anni ’70 secondo cui le attività a carattere insediativo, economico e turistico in una scala gerarchica dei valori assumono una posizione subordinata rispetto all’interesse pubblico a salvaguardare le bellezze della natura esistente, dando per scontato che l’opera dell’uomo volta a modificare la natura dei luoghi rechi in genere un nocumento alla natura sia per l’alterazione del paesaggio che degli elementi naturali.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Nella ricostruzione del Prof. Comporti, l’accresciuta sensibilità per i temi ambientali è confermata dalla creazione dell’autonoma fattispecie risarcitoria di cui all’art. 18 della legge n. 349 del 1986, costruita come una sorta di clausola generale alternativa rispetto a quella dell’art. 2043 del c.c. e che ha creato un ampio dibattito tra gli studiosi in merito alla natura pubblicistica o privatistica di tale nuova fattispecie.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Tale norma è di fondamentale importanza perché tiene insieme una dimensione organizzativa con una dimensione funzionale e si caratterizza per il fatto che non sia necessario dimostrare la perdita economica per le casse di un ente pubblico, con ciò liberandosi dalla connotazione erariale del danno. Una delle questioni di non chiara interpretazione relativa all’art. 18 messa in luce dal Professore è, inoltre, la prevalenza accordata dalla giurisprudenza della Cassazione al ripristino dello stato dei luoghi rispetto alla condanna al risarcimento pecuniario dal momento che solo questa è idonea a sopprimere la fonte della sequenza dei danni futuri.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Prima dell’arrivo del d.lgs. n. 152 de 2006, il Professore cita, inoltre, due tappe intermedie, ossia il cd. “decreto Ronchi” in tema di bonifiche che ripropone l’accento sulla tutela reintegratoria a carattere tendenzialmente reale ed oggettivo e la direttiva 2004/35 che oltre ad introdurre un modello di tutela integrale dell’ordinamento incentrato sul perseguimento di elevati standard di qualità e livelli di biodiversità, definisce un quadro articolato di azioni rimediali in cui largo peso ha anche la responsabilità a carattere oggettivo.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">L’evoluzione descritta viene inevitabilmente ripresa dalla parte VI del Codice dell’ambiente che secondo il Professore ha il merito di fornire una visione d’insieme dei rimedi da cui trarre una chiave utile di lettura aggiornata perché un’analisi macro definisce un quadro dalle linee più armoniche e fornisce elementi di razionalità che permette di adattarsi meglio al problema concreto ed operativo da risolvere rispetto ad un’analisi micro dei singoli istituti e dei singoli rimedi che finisce inevitabilmente per focalizzare l’attenzione sulla irrisolta incongruenza dei vari “pezzi”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il comune obiettivo dei vari rimedi differenti è quello di passare dalla paura alla cura del problema in un’ottica volta alla necessità di un intervento tempestivo dell’operatore, con particolare riguardo  alla centralità dell’istruttoria tecnica da parte dell’amministrazione e del momento conoscitivo che è alla base di tutte le decisioni successive.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Ad ogni modo, il tema della responsabilità, secondo il Professore, è ancora destinato a significativi sviluppi se solo si considera che da un’iniziale prospettiva secondo cui era necessario farsi carico delle proprie azioni secondo una logica di tipo retributivo e sanzionatorio si è passati alla necessità di farsi carico non solo di ciò che si fa ma anche delle sue conseguenze sugli altri, anche in chiave intergenerazionale tenendo conto della vulnerabilità delle generazioni future. In questo processo di continua evoluzione è facile immaginare che siamo già entrati nel prossimo sviluppo della vicenda evolutiva della responsabilità che consiste in un “rispondere per”, svincolata da ogni riferimento soggettivo e generazionale ed in una prospettiva che consideri i vari istituti come momenti costitutivi di una più ampia e ambiziosa visione strategica, che consideri le sfide ecologiche in modo globale al fine di creare le condizioni di uno sviluppo socio – economico coerente con una società consapevole dei suoi limiti e suoi condizionamenti e della necessità di progettare i beni e servizi del futuro già pensando al momento in cui perderanno l’utilità per cui sono stati ideati.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il tema del Codice dell’ambiente e la valutazione di impatto ambientale è stato successivamente trattato dalla Prof.ssa Monica Delsignore dell’Università degli Studi di Milano &#8211; Bicocca, la quale si è posta come obiettivo quello di comprendere se e come il Codice dell’ambiente abbia contribuito all’evoluzione di questo istituto.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Esso è stato originariamente introdotto nel <em>National environmental policy act</em> statunitense con l’obiettivo di assicurare, oltre all’analisi delle conseguenze degli impatti ambientali, la promozione del concetto di “democrazia ambientale”, attraverso l’informazione e la promozione della partecipazione del pubblico interessato ed il coinvolgimento della comunità.<br />
Da una prima disamina dell’istituto si è poi rilevato che si tratta sempre di una fase all’interno di un procedimento principale e che, come messo in luce dalla stessa Corte Suprema, la valutazione deve limitarsi alle valutazioni degli impatti aventi specifico carattere ambientale escludendo, invece, quelli a carattere socio – economico.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La Professoressa è passata, in secondo luogo, all’analisi delle numerose direttive europee che si sono succedute nel tempo e che hanno comportato una serie di interventi ripetuti all’interno del codice a partire dalla direttiva del 1985, sottolineando come lo scopo della disciplina europea, attuativa del principio di precauzione e prevenzione, sia quello di introdurre ed imporre agli Stati membri degli oneri procedimentali e di informare il decisore politico delle conseguenze degli impatti sull’ambiente delle proprie scelte, non quello di condizionare le scelte del decisore politico all’interesse della protezione dell’ambiente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Spostando la sua analisi in ambito nazionale, la Professoressa, dopo aver sottolineato come l’istituto sia stato trapiantato nel nostro ordinamento con la legge n. 349 del 1986, ha analizzato quello che è stato l’impatto del codice sulla VIA mettendo in luce che, anche a seguito dei numerosi interventi del legislatore spesso legati alla necessità di attuare le direttive europee, di fatto questa è stata stravolta e ha subito una mutazione genetica, in quanto più che un parere la VIA è diventata un vero e proprio provvedimento autorizzatorio, come si evince sia dall’art. 5, lett. o) del Codice sia dalla giurisprudenza, e ha perso la sua qualità tecnica.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In quest’ottica la Professoressa ha esaminato anche gli ultimi interventi legislativi, tra cui quelli del 2020 e 2021, dai quali sembrerebbero emergere dei timidi tentativi – come l’idea del provvedimento unico e l’inchiesta pubblica – per riportare la VIA a quella che dovrebbe essere la sua finalità d’origine, ossia quella di instaurare una fase nel procedimento del rilascio del titolo autorizzatorio in cui si spiegano quelli che sono gli impatti ambientali e che permetta il coinvolgimento del pubblico, auspicando che il legislatore arrivi presto ad un ripensamento pieno dell’istituto.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La disamina della codificazione tra istituti generali del diritto dell’ambiente e specifici settori è proseguita con la relazione del Prof. Francesco De Leonardis dell’Università degli Studi di Macerata che si è occupato dello specifico tema della regolazione dei rifiuti nella nuova stagione dell’economia circolare, chiedendosi quale sia il ruolo assunto dall’economia circolare nell’evoluzione della disciplina dei rifiuti che si è avuta in questi 15 anni dall’introduzione del Codice e quali siano le novità che all’economia circolare possono essere ricondotte in relazione alla regolazione dei rifiuti, nonché quali siano gli elementi di criticità che si sono presentati.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Nel rispondere a tali quesiti il Professore ha fatto presente come il ruolo dell’economia circolare in materia di rifiuti sia importante ma non così rivoluzionario, mentre rivoluzionario è se all’economia circolare si riconosce un nuovo metodo di approccio. Sul punto il Professore, dopo avere illustrato le norme del codice dell’ambiente dedicate ai rifiuti e la rilevante influenza esercitata dalle direttive comunitarie a partire dalla direttiva 75/442 fino al pacchetto “<em>circular economy</em>”, di cui alla direttiva 2018/851 costituisce l’asse portante, ha sottolineato come l’economia circolare non sia altro che una “bio-mimesi”, ossia un tentativo di imitare la natura dato che nei processi naturali nulla si perde e tutto viene reimmesso nel ciclo naturale, e che già da un punto di vista letterale l’economia circolare viene menzionata più volte nella parte IV del Codice dell’ambiente. Il punto maggiormente significativo è però il nuovo approccio sistemico dell’economia circolare che non attiene più solamente ai rifiuti e all’economia del riciclo ma è qualcosa che – come dimostra l’art. 180 del d.lgs. 152 del 2006 relativo al Programma nazionale di prevenzione dei rifiuti – attiene alla progettazione poiché è già in questa fase che deve tenersi conto della tutela dell’ambiente, pensando fin dall’inizio agli impatti che può avere un prodotto nel suo fine vita. In quest’ottica, dunque, la disciplina dei rifiuti si trasforma da mero servizio pubblico, che deve essere garantito dopo la produzione, a vettore di trasformazione del sistema produttivo che orienta la produzione in un programma di prevenzione.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Un altro aspetto è, poi, quello che riguarda gli strumenti proposti dall’economia circolare per arrivare all’obiettivo di modelli di sviluppo sostenibile, che sono, oltre alle misure tradizionali di divieto (es. divieto di DDT, di amianto e di plastica monouso) e agli strumenti economici classici a tutela dell’ambiente come gli incentivi fiscali e non fiscali, gli appalti verdi, marchi, brevetti ecc., i sistemi di EPR (<em>extended producer responsibility</em>). Questi ultimi creano un ambiente in cui le imprese sono costrette ad internalizzare i costi del fine vita dei propri prodotti e sono, dunque, incentivate all’utilizzo di prodotti più verdi. Tali sistemi, nonostante fossero già previsti nel “decreto Ronchi” del 1997 per alcuni particolari tipi di rifiuti, con il pacchetto di <em>circular economy</em> vengono generalizzati a tutti i prodotti e vengono disciplinati dagli art. 178 <em>bis </em>e 178 <em>ter</em> del Codice dell’ambiente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il Professore specifica, inoltre, l’importante ruolo che nel nostro ordinamento assume la concorrenza citata più volte nel Codice dell’ambiente e la complessità della regolazione della disciplina dei rifiuti ricollegandola al problema culturale della mancanza di vere e proprie infrastrutture – non potendosi ritenere che i Comuni siano delle infrastrutture, in quanto essi sono solo dei fornitori di un servizio di raccolta – a differenza di quanto avviene per l’energia, il gas e l’acqua e ciò anche a causa del fatto che i rifiuti non vengono considerati dei veri e propri beni. Nel sottolineare l’importanza che la regolazione abbia una certa qualità, si evidenzia che si sta facendo strada l’idea che l’infrastruttura debba essere aperta a tutti i sistemi di EPR, accessibile a tutti e con dei costi che siano predeterminati dal regolatore.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La seconda sessione è continuata, poi, con l’intervento della Prof.ssa Vera Parisio dell’Università degli Studi di Brescia che ha trattato lo specifico tema del Codice dell’ambiente e dei servizi idrici. Ha prima di tutto inquadrato la disciplina delle acque all’interno del Codice, rilevando come, nonostante i suoi limiti intrinseci discussi dai precedenti relatori nella prima sessione del convegno (mancanza di omogeneità, mancanza di una reale parte generale, mancanza di aspirazione alla completezza), questo abbia tentato ed in parte sia riuscito a tenere insieme la pluralità delle discipline relative all’acqua e ad esprimere la consapevolezza del valore ecologico dell’acqua, bene in relazione al quale &#8211; anche alla luce della direttiva quadro 2000/60 &#8211; si sente in maniera sempre più preponderante l’emersione di un forte interesse come risorsa in sé considerata ed in particolare come risorsa scarsa.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In questo quadro introduttivo, la Professoressa ha evidenziato anche l’evoluzione che ha subito la disciplina dell’acqua nel tempo, che è passata dall’essere considerata come un elemento naturale dal quale difendersi ad essere considerata come un bene produttivo (nel periodo post bellico) per poi arrivare alla legge n. 36 del 1994, c.d. “legge Galli”, dove la risorsa idrica diventa una risorsa scarsa in relazione alla quale il consumo umano diventa prioritario. La legge Galli viene spesso citata perché i principi in essa contenuti saranno poi recepiti nel Codice, come quello della natura pubblica delle acque superficiali e sotterranee, nonché delle acque estratte dal suolo così come quello del suo utilizzo secondo criteri di solidarietà per la salvaguarda anche delle generazioni future, ripresi dall’art. 144 del Codice dell’ambiente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La Professoressa passa poi a descrivere quelle che sono le peculiarità della disciplina dell’acqua che si svolge, appunto, in ambito demaniale, ed in relazione alla quale rilevano sia profili di tutela ambientale che di tutela della concorrenza e che, ancora, è connotata da uno stretto legame con le collettività locali. A tale ultimo riguardo viene sottolineato come con la legge Galli si passi da una dimensione comunale del servizio alla creazione di un servizio a rete ed integrato dotato di rilevanza economica, gestito in ambiti territoriali ottimali sovracomunali.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Richiamando l’art. 149 <em>bis </em>del Codice dell’ambiente, la Professoressa evidenzia l’importanza delle fonti europee per l’affidamento del servizio idrico integrato di rilevanza economica che, soprattutto a seguito del referendum del 2011 con cui si è abrogato l’art. 23 <em>bis</em> del d.l. n. 112 del 2008, avviene prevalentemente a favore delle società <em>in house</em>. Ai sensi dello stesso art. 149 <em>bis</em>, tali società in questo settore possono essere partecipate solo dagli enti locali ricadenti nell’ambito territoriale ottimale e possono essere costituite anche in assenza di una motivazione specifica attinente al fallimento del mercato.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Piuttosto critica risulta, inoltre, la gestione del servizio idrico che si caratterizza per un forte <em>gap </em>infrastrutturale tra i servizi del centro nord e quelli del sud dovuto alla cattiva manutenzione degli impianti, che ci si augura possa essere superato anche grazie all’utilizzo dei fondi del PNRR.<br />
È seguito poi l’intervento della Prof.ssa Maria Vittoria Ferroni dell’Università “La Sapienza” di Roma avente ad oggetto il Codice dell’ambiente e la biodiversità. La Professoressa ha introdotto l’argomento partendo dalla nozione di biodiversità, la cui definizione più importante è contenuta nella Convenzione della biodiversità di Rio del 1992 (intesa come diversità all’interno di ogni specie, tra le specie e gli ecosistemi) e dall’importanza che questa riveste perché fonte per l’uomo di beni, servizi e risorse (cd. “servizi ecosistemici”) ed in grado di valorizzare il capitale naturale.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Il Codice sembra fare riferimento solo al concetto di natura mentre la biodiversità è un concetto molto più ampio che ricomprende quello della natura ma che non si esaurisce in esso. Allo stato attuale la situazione è molto critica non tanto per la perdita della biodiversità, che è in qualche modo fisiologica, ma soprattutto in ragione del crescente tasso di perdita che è di molto superiore al limite che la terra può sopportare e che è giunto ad un livello senza precedenti. È necessario, conseguentemente, interrogarsi sulle cause che hanno inciso sulla mancata protezione della perdita della biodiversità e sulle possibili soluzioni.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In merito al mancato funzionamento degli strumenti giuridici fino ad oggi messi in campo – come dimostra il mancato raggiungimento di quasi tutti gli obiettivi di Aichi – viene posto l’accento sul fatto che la Convenzione sulla biodiversità non abbia posto degli obblighi ma abbia, piuttosto, lasciato liberi gli Stati membri di decidere come proteggere la biodiversità. E’, inoltre, mancato fino ad oggi un approccio integrato tra protezione della natura, agricoltura e verde urbano.<br />
Un primo cambio di passo sembra essere stato attuato dalla Strategia europea sulla biodiversità per il 2030 approvata nel maggio del 2020 con cui ci si è impegnati attraverso una serie di azioni concrete, con un relativo sistema di controlli, che poi è stata recepita anche dalla Strategia italiana sulla biodiversità del 2010.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Viene, inoltre, evidenziato dalla Professoressa che la crescente consapevolezza dell’importanza di lottare contro la perdita della biodiversità si sta traducendo nel progetto di riforma costituzionale che inserisce all’art. 9 tra i principi della Costituzione la tutela della biodiversità, insieme alla tutela dell’ambiente, degli ecosistemi e degli animali, in linea anche con la posizione espressa dalla Corte costituzionale nella sent. n. 104 del 2008 con riferimento alla biosfera. L’inserimento della tutela della biodiversità in Costituzione avrebbe un notevole impatto anche sul Codice dell’ambiente perché comporterebbe l’automatica integrazione dell’art. 3 <em>bis </em>e potrebbe determinare un nuovo modello anche in ordine alle finalità del codice, ribaltando l’attuale concezione fortemente antropocentrica.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">Al momento manca una disciplina sistematica all’interno del Codice della biodiversità – la quale viene espressamente richiamata in materia di danno ambientale nonché in relazione al concetto di impatto ambientale – anche in considerazione del fatto che molti aspetti che riguardano la tutela della natura sono disciplinati da una normativa settoriale. Ciò evidenzia maggiormente il fatto che lo stesso Codice potrebbe essere il luogo più adatto per accogliere in un’ottica sistematica e razionale tutta la relativa disciplina.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">A chiusura della sua relazione la Professoressa auspica, infine, che l’emergenza in tema di biodiversità ci spinga a considerarla in modo trasversale in ogni settore dell’ambiente ma, soprattutto, che si possa giungere ad un accordo giuridico globale che imponga l’applicazione almeno dei principi in tutti gli Stati, compresi quelli che procedono alla deforestazione come il Brasile e la Cina, nonché all’istituzione di una Corte internazionale con poteri sanzionatori effettivi nei confronti degli Stati inadempienti.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">A chiusura è intervenuto il Prof. Giampaolo Rossi, direttore della <em>Rivista quadrimestrale di diritto dell’ambiente</em>, che, in linea generale, ha espresso alcune perplessità relative alla codificazione del diritto dell’ambiente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">A tal riguardo, il Professore ha, prima di tutto, evidenziato che di fatto è impossibile codificare il “divenire” che è particolarmente accelerato con riferimento alla materia dell’ambiente, come reso evidente dalle numerose modifiche apportate al codice in questi 15 anni dalla sua adozione, citate dal Prof. Moliterni, ed in secondo luogo ha sottolineato che il concetto di ambiente tende continuamente ad ampliarsi, anche per le sue interconnessioni con altri aspetti come la qualità della vita e lo sviluppo economico, mentre non tutto è riportabile nel diritto.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">In quest’ottica, secondo il Professore, l’unica nozione giuridica spendibile è quella dell’ambiente in senso stretto che è quello che individua specifici poteri e specifiche competenze nonché specifici diritti (diversi dal diritto alla vita, dal diritto alla salute ecc.), mentre attualmente il Codice se, da un lato, non comprende al proprio interno tutto ciò che rientra nella materia ambiente &#8211; come le aree protette -, dall’altro lato, ricomprende al suo interno anche un’accezione in senso più lato di ambiente, come emerge dall’art. 2 che tra le finalità ricomprende la promozione di livelli di qualità della vita umana.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">La spinta alla dilatazione del concetto di ambiente si evince anche dal fatto che in dottrina si è iniziato a parlare di diritto alla sostenibilità piuttosto che di ambiente, mentre, secondo il Professore, la nozione di sostenibilità, oltre ad essere ancora più vaga della nozione di ambiente, ne fornisce un’accezione negativa in quanto l’ambiente viene visto di fatto come limite allo sviluppo che deve essere, appunto sostenibile. Durante il convegno è, invece, emerso che l’ambiente è piuttosto di fondamentale importanza per lo sviluppo.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;">L’intervento, infine,  si è chiuso con la considerazione che, per tutti i limiti riscontrati sino ad oggi, si dovrebbe passare dal codice ad una completa ed ordinata raccolta di norme da aggiornarsi continuamente.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1">[1]</a> La dott.ssa Chiara Colognese ha curato il resoconto della prima sessione del convegno sul tema “codificazione e principi del diritto dell’ambiente”.</p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2">[2]</a> La dott.ssa Manuela Cundari ha curato il resoconto della seconda sessione del convegno relativa alla “codificazione tra istituti generali del diritto dell’ambiente e specifici settori”.</p>
<p>Views: 0</p><p>L'articolo <a href="https://www.giustamm.it/dottrina/resoconto-convegno-del-25-ottobre-2021-il-codice-dellambiente-a-15-anni-dalla-sua-approvazione/">RESOCONTO CONVEGNO DEL 25 ottobre 2021 “Il Codice dell’ambiente a 15 anni dalla sua approvazione”</a> proviene da <a href="https://www.giustamm.it">Giustamm</a>.</p>
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